Experiences of social exclusion among men are related to instances of intimate partner violence, according to new research published in Sex Roles. The study found that feelings of ostracism are positively associated with what is termed “masculine gender role stress,” leading to higher instances of intimate partner violence and mental health issues like depression and anxiety.
The motivation behind this study stemmed from the persisting issue of gender-based violence, particularly intimate partner violence, despite the traction gained by feminist movements like #MeToo and Times Up in recent years. The World Health Organization reports that a staggering 27% of women and girls globally experience this form of violence. Understanding the underlying causes and psychological mechanisms that lead to intimate partner violence is crucial for developing effective interventions and reducing the prevalence of this pervasive issue.
“After studying the consequences of ostracism in general, I was interested in looking at how these might be influenced by gender and gender roles,” said study author Rheal Chan, research assistant at The Education University of Hong Kong. “Based on what I knew about masculinity and its dependence on others’ recognition, I thought that ostracism may pose unique challenges to men through masculine gender role stress and was interested in the consequences these unique challenges may carry.”
The study recruited participants through Amazon Mechanical Turk. After an initial screening, 311 men from the United States were included in the final sample. The research team employed a series of well-established psychological measures to gather data.
Participants rated their experiences of being socially excluded using an adapted version of the Workplace Ostracism Scale. The scale included items like being shut out of conversations or having greetings go unanswered. Masculine gender role stress was measured through the Abbreviated Masculine Gender Role Stress Scale, where participants evaluated how stressful they found situations that threatened traditional masculine roles, such as being outperformed at work by a woman.
To assess intimate partner violence, the researchers used the Extended-Hit/Insult/Threaten/Scream Scale, which inquired about behaviors like physical harm, threats, or forced sexual acts toward a partner. Lastly, depression and anxiety were measured using established scales that asked about symptoms such as feeling hopeless or anxious.
The researchers found that men who reported higher experiences of ostracism also reported greater stress in maintaining their masculine roles. This stress was found to be a significant mediator in the relationship between ostracism and intimate partner violence. In other words, the more men felt excluded or ignored by others, the more likely they were to experience stress related to their masculine identity, which in turn increased the likelihood of them perpetrating violence against their intimate partners.
“While the results did support all of our predictions, I was surprised about how much masculine gender role stress accounted for the relationship between ostracism and intimate partner violence perpetration,” Chan told PsyPost. “This seems to suggest a crucial and very central role of gender expectations in predicting the outcomes of negative social experiences, the extent of which I did not expect.”
Furthermore, the study highlighted a direct positive association between experiences of ostracism and mental health issues. Men who felt more ostracized reported higher levels of depression and anxiety. Interestingly, the study also found a serial mediation effect, indicating that the relationship between ostracism and mental health issues was partially due to the combined effects of masculine gender role stress and intimate partner violence perpetration.
“I think what the average person can take away from this research is a deeper understanding of how gender can play a role in the experience of social events,” Chan said. “In particular, I had hoped to highlight how the rigidity of certain gender roles and expectations could influence the everyday experience of ostracism to predict highly prevalent and severe negative outcomes.”
Despite these significant findings, the study is not without its limitations. One major constraint is its cross-sectional nature, which restricts the ability to establish causal relationships. The study’s reliance on self-reported measures also raises concerns about the accuracy and honesty of the responses. Additionally, the focus on a predominantly Western, U.S.-based sample limits the generalizability of the findings to other cultural contexts.
“Further research can test whether various male identities (e.g., feminist identity, gender identity, sexual orientation) can buffer against the relationships established in this research to prevent intimate partner violence perpetration and harmful mental health outcomes,” Chan said. “Subsequent research could also test whether other factors, such as anger or self-esteem, can explain the relationships between ostracism, intimate partner violence perpetration, and poor mental health beyond masculine gender role stress to better understand how this relationship may unfold.”
The study, “The Unmanliness of Ostracism: The Role of Masculine Gender Role Stress and Intimate Partner Violence in Men’s Mental Health“, was authored by Rheal S. W. Chan and Kai-Tak Poon.
