In a groundbreaking study published in the Archives of Sexual Behavior, researchers have ventured into a seldom-explored domain: the societal perceptions of sex work and its various forms, ranging from prostitution to webcamming. The study found evidence of a hierarchical ranking among these forms, dubbed the “whorearchy,” with webcamming perceived as offering more agency to women and prostitution seen in a more negative light. Interestingly, the study also uncovered that individual attitudes towards these forms of sex work are significantly influenced by a person’s socio-political orientation and views on sexuality.
Despite the ubiquitous nature of sex work and its considerable economic impact, societal attitudes towards this profession remain complex and often negative. Previous research has largely overlooked the nuanced views people hold regarding different forms of sex work. Recognizing this gap, researchers aimed to provide a more nuanced understanding of these attitudes and explore the predictors behind them.
“During the height of the COVID pandemic, I noticed there was a lot of discussion online about people turning to sex work in order to supplement their income, particularly those joining OnlyFans,” said study author Hanna Puffer, a masters candidate in psychology at Brock University and member of the Brock Intergroup Attitudes Scholarship (BIAS) Laboratory.
“This got me interested in understanding how people perceive women’s participation in sex work. We were wondering, in a contemporary context, do people see sex work as empowering or harmful, and what predicts those perceptions. Additionally, upon further examination of previous research, I realized that no research had been done that simultaneously compared how people perceived ‘newer’ types of sex work and ‘older’ types of sex work. These ideas were the inspiration behind the study.”
For their study, the researchers recruited a sample of 298 U.S. residents via Amazon Mechanical Turk. Participants were required to be fluent in English and at least 18 years old. The gender distribution was 59.1% male and 40.9% female, with an average age of 40.06 years. Ethnically, the majority were White (77.5%), followed by Asian (11.1%), Black (7.7%), and Latino (6.7%).
The core of the research methodology involved presenting participants with detailed descriptions of four distinct domains of sex work: webcamming, sugar relationships, prostitution, and pornography. These descriptions were crafted to ensure that all participants had a uniform understanding of each domain before responding to the survey questions. This preparatory step was included to ensure the collection of accurate and informed responses regarding their perceptions of each domain.
Following the introduction to the domains, participants were asked to evaluate each domain on several key aspects using a 7-point scale. The aspects included perceived exploitation, harm, empowerment, benefits, danger, and independence associated with women’s participation in these forms of sex work. Responses ranged from “not at all” to “extremely.” The researchers also collected data on a variety of theoretical predictors to understand what might influence attitudes toward sex work.
The findings confirmed the existence of the whorearchy, translating what has been largely anecdotal evidence into empirical data. The researchers found a structured hierarchy in how different forms of sex work are viewed in terms of agency and harm towards women.
Webcamming was perceived as the most favorable form of sex work, regarded as providing the highest level of agency and the least harm to women involved. This form of sex work, which includes activities like live video performances that often cater to the requests of clients online, was seen as empowering, perhaps due to the perceived control and safety workers have over their environment and interactions with clients.
Following webcamming, sugar relationships were positioned next in the hierarchy. These arrangements, where typically an older and financially well-off individual supports a younger partner in exchange for companionship and sex, were seen as offering a moderate level of agency to women. This perception might stem from the relational aspect of these arrangements, which can offer some level of mutual respect and understanding, contrasting sharply with more transactional forms of sex work.
Pornography occupied the next tier, viewed as offering less agency and causing more harm than both webcamming and sugar relationships. The perception of harm and reduced agency in pornography could be related to the physical presence of directors and producers, which might translate into perceived control over the sex workers’ actions and choices.
Prostitution was ranked at the bottom of the whorearchy, perceived as the most harmful and offering the least agency to women. This form of sex work, involving direct sexual services for payment, is often stigmatized due to its association with “street work,” vulnerability to violence, and legal implications in many regions. The view of prostitution as the least favorable form of sex work highlights traditional societal concerns about safety, exploitation, and the physical and mental well-being of those involved.
Puffer and her colleagues also unearthed significant insights into how personal beliefs, political orientations, and demographic factors shape perceptions of sex work.
“One thing people should take away is that attitudes toward sex work differ by various factors. In terms of differing between different domains of sex work, more positive attitudes were held toward OnlyFans and sugar relationships and more negative attitudes held toward pornography and prostitution, They also differed by gender, where women tended to hold more negative attitudes toward sex work, men tended to hold more positive attitudes,” Puffer told PsyPost.
“Lastly, they differed by individual differences variables. For example, we found that Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) and sociosexuality (i.e., the willingness to engage in sexual relations without strong emotional commitment to a partner) were the strongest predictors of attitudes toward sex work, with those higher on RWA holding more negative attitudes and those higher on sociosexuality holding more positive attitudes.”
These findings provide important insights regarding the views society holds towards different forms of sex work. But the study’s findings are not without limitations. The research focused solely on U.S. residents, which may not fully capture global attitudes towards sex work, especially in countries with different legal and cultural contexts.
“Future research should compare how attitudes toward sex work differ by country,” Puffer said. “Additionally, we specifically examined attitudes toward heterosexual sex work, where men purchase sex from women. Future research should address attitudes toward non-heteronormative sex work, for example, instances where men pay men for sex.”
“We’ve been pleased with the interest that has been expressed in this paper and we feel that it would make a promising topic for future research to pursue,” she added
The study, “Attitudes Toward Cisgender Women’s Participation in Sex Work: Opportunity for Agency or Harmful Exchange?,” was authored by Hanna Puffer, Gordon Hodson, and Elvira Prusaczyk.
