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New research published in Psychology & Sexuality indicates that as women with previous experiences of nonconsensual sex grow older, they tend to report lower levels of both internal willingness to engage in sexual activity and external expressions of consent. These patterns were not observed in women without such experiences or in men, regardless of their history. The findings suggest that the effects of sexual trauma on consent may be persistent and may influence how sexual agency is experienced well into adulthood.
Sexual consent is a central part of healthy sexual relationships, but its meaning and expression are not always straightforward. Most research in this area has focused on young, university-aged women, which leaves a gap in knowledge about how people of different ages and genders experience consent. The researchers aimed to address this gap by exploring whether age and a history of sexual trauma influence how people experience and express sexual consent.
“People continue having sex beyond their 20s as well as after sexual assault. But experiences of sexual consent in these cases are critically understudied. This research takes a step toward better understanding sexual consent across the lifespan and following potentially traumatic events. Specifically, women with previous nonconsensual sexual experiences may feel less willing to engage in partnered sexual activity over time,” said study author Malachi Willis of the University of Glasgow.
The researchers recruited 658 adults living in the United States and the United Kingdom through an online platform. Participants ranged in age from young adults to older adults, with a nearly equal number of men and women. They were asked to complete a series of questionnaires about their most recent sexual experience. These included measures of how willing and ready they felt internally (internal consent) and how they communicated their willingness to their partner (external consent). Participants also indicated whether they had experienced any form of nonconsensual sexual behavior in the past.
Internal consent was measured using a set of questions that assessed five aspects: physical arousal, feelings of safety and comfort, emotional readiness, desire for the activity, and a sense of agreement. External consent was measured through questions about how clearly and actively participants signaled their willingness, either through words or actions.
When analyzing the data, the researchers looked at how internal and external consent varied with age, gender, and history of nonconsensual experiences. Their results showed that older age was linked to lower levels of both internal and external consent, but only for women who had experienced nonconsensual sex in the past. For these women, increasing age was associated with a gradual decrease in both how willing they felt during sex and how actively they communicated that willingness.
This pattern was not found in women who had not experienced nonconsensual sex. Nor was it found in men, whether or not they had such a history. The findings were consistent across all five dimensions of internal consent and all four types of external communication, including verbal and nonverbal signals.
One possible explanation suggested by the authors relates to trauma. Research indicates that trauma from past sexual experiences can shape later sexual encounters, making it harder for individuals to feel safe, emotionally present, or confident during sexual activity. These effects may accumulate over time, especially if the trauma is not addressed. In women, this may translate into a reduced sense of agency and less active communication of consent as they age.
Another possibility is that for some women, verbal communication during sex may trigger memories of traumatic events. Prior studies have found that women who have experienced sexual assault may avoid explicit consent cues because they feel unsafe or emotionally overwhelmed by them. If this avoidance becomes habitual, it may contribute to long-term changes in sexual behavior and wellbeing.
The results also point to possible gender differences in how trauma affects sexual consent. While some men in the study had experienced nonconsensual sex, their reports of internal and external consent did not change with age. Other research suggests that men may be less likely to express distress related to sexual trauma or may try to suppress such experiences. These factors could help explain why no similar age-related patterns were found among men in the current study.
“Sexual consent is more than communication,” Willis told PsyPost. “A person internally experiences levels of willingness to engage in sex with another person before they can then express that willingness to others. How people feel and ultimately communicate their sexual consent varies from one situation to the next. With this study, we supported the importance of two additional nuances of sexual consent to consider: a person’s age and whether they have been sexually assaulted.”
Jennifer Littlejohn, a PhD candidate and the lead author of the study, added “that sexual assault and other life experiences may shape how women communicate their sexual interest; however, they do not altogether remove women’s sexual agency. Nonconsensual sexual experiences can and must be addressed to promote women’s sexual wellbeing, agency, and enjoyment.”
Although the study provides new insights into how sexual trauma and age may interact to shape consent experiences, there are limitations. The researchers did not ask when the nonconsensual experiences occurred or how many such experiences a participant had. Without this information, it is difficult to determine how recent or frequent trauma might influence the findings.
Additionally, participants reported on just one sexual experience—their most recent one—which might not reflect their usual patterns. Since consent experiences can vary depending on the partner, the context, and the nature of the activity, a single event may not tell the whole story. Memory bias could also play a role, as people may forget or misinterpret their internal states or behaviors in retrospect.
Future research might benefit from using a longitudinal approach, tracking people over time to see how their consent behaviors change after a traumatic experience. Researchers could also explore how different types of sexual trauma affect consent, and whether trauma-informed therapy can help individuals regain a sense of control and communication in their sexual lives.
“These findings do not mean that women who have been sexually assaulted necessarily desire sex less,” Willis noted. “Wanting sex and being willing to have sex are distinct concepts. These findings should not be used as evidence that men do not experience lasting effects of sexual assault. Men may report internal feelings of consent while otherwise experiencing emotional or interpersonal difficulties.”
The study, “Sexual consent decreases with age for women who have experienced nonconsensual sexual activity,” was authored by Jennifer Littlejohn, Mhairi Sloan, and Malachi Willis.
