A study spanning eight weeks, focusing on girls aged 11 to 14, found that weekly fluctuations in testosterone levels could predict mood changes. However, the strength and nature of this correlation varied based on theta wave activity in the frontal lobe, cortisol reactivity, and other factors. The study was published in Development and Psychopathology.
Puberty is a natural and gradual process of physical and sexual maturation that marks the transition from childhood to adulthood in humans. It is typically initiated by hormonal changes, including increased production of sex hormones such as estrogen and testosterone. Secondary sexual characteristics like breast in girls and facial hair in boys develop during this period. Body composition and voice change. Reproductive organs become fully functional.
Adolescents undergoing puberty often experience frequent mood swings, heightened sensitivity, and increased vulnerability to stress. Factors such as self-identity development, social pressures, and evolving relationships contribute to these mood changes. Moreover, research indicates that these mood swings might be linked to hormonal fluctuations. The increase in testosterone and estrogen levels, characteristic of puberty, affects brain chemistry and emotional states.
Elizabeth Andersen and her team at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill aimed to investigate how frontal lobe activity and stress reactivity influence the relationship between weekly hormonal fluctuations and mood changes during puberty. They hypothesized that specific brain activity profiles, such as theta wave activity in the frontal lobe, cortisol reactivity, and vagus nerve response efficiency to psychosocial stress, would correlate with a stronger link between hormonal changes and mood. Cortisol reactivity refers to the rate and magnitude of cortisol increase in response to stress-inducing events.
The study involved 46 girls aged between 11 and 14. These participants were either pre-menarche or had experienced their first menstrual period within the year preceding the study. Recruitment occurred through flyers, online outreach to parents at local middle schools, and mass emails to university staff. Most participants came from highly educated and affluent backgrounds.
At the start of the study, the researchers took height and weight measurement of participants and collected data on their pubertal development (the Pubertal Development Scale), behavioral activation and inhibition (the Behavioral Inhibition and Behavioral Activation Systems scale), and medical history.
Over the subsequent eight weeks, participants provided saliva samples during weekly lab visits. These samples were analyzed to estimate levels of estrone (one of the three main estrogens) and testosterone. Additionally, participants completed mood assessments, focusing on dysphoric moods such as depression, anxiety, and general unhappiness, using the Daily Record Severity of Problems and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale for Children. These assessments helped researchers determine the direction and strength of the relationship between hormone levels and mood.
Following the eight-week period, participants revisited the lab to perform a go/no-go task, during which researchers recorded their brain activity via electroencephalography. They also underwent the Trier Social Stress Test for Children. Saliva samples were collected before, during, and after this test to monitor cortisol level changes, thus assessing cortisol reactivity. Additionally, participants completed mood and stress assessments before and after the test, using the Mood and Feelings Questionnaire, the Perceived Stress Scale, and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule.
Results showed that mood changes were associated with changes in both testosterone and estrone, but the strength and direction of these associations (whether the mood improves or worsens when hormone levels increase or decrease) differed greatly between participants.
The association between testosterone level and mood tended to be stronger in participants who had greater theta wave reactivity in frontal lobes of their brains during the go-no go task. This activity is believed to be indicative of strength of emotional reactions. The link between testosterone and mood was also stronger in individuals who showed lower cortisol reactivity and lower efficiency of the vagus nerve during the stress task, but also stronger negative affect after the stress test.
“The present study expanded previous findings demonstrating that hormone fluctuation precipitates mood symptoms in peripubertal female adolescents and identified distinct profiles in neurocognitive and behavioral tendencies that are associated with mood sensitivity to testosterone change. Consistent with a novel diathesis-stress model, stress-related modifications of frontal and limbic circuitry may make the brain more vulnerable to abrupt changes in peripubertal hormones,” the study authors concluded.
The study makes an important contribution to the scientific understanding of links between hormonal changes and emotional experiences. However, it also has limitations that need to be taken into account. Notably, the study sample was very small and researchers used two different electroencephalography recording systems for collecting brain activity data. This prevented them from comparing brain activity results of different study participants.
The paper, “Biobehavioral mechanisms underlying testosterone and mood relationships in peripubertal female adolescents”, was authored by Elizabeth Andersen, Julianna Prim, Alana Campbell, Crystal Schiller, Kayla Baresich, and Susan Girdler.