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A recent study published in the journal Deviant Behavior maps the warning signs and systemic failures that precede deadly attacks by men who identify as involuntary celibates. By working backward from four distinct tragedies, researchers identified a chain of severe social isolation, untreated mental health struggles, and missed opportunities for intervention. These insights offer a roadmap for recognizing the warning signs of misogynistic extremism and stopping future acts of mass violence.
The internet hosts a vast array of communities, some of which are united by shared grievances. One such group is the “incel” subculture, a primarily online network of men who express deep frustration over their inability to form sexual or romantic relationships with women. This community exists within a broader digital space known as the manosphere, where extreme misogyny and male supremacy are common themes. Many incel forums operate as echo chambers that promote a highly distorted view of gender dynamics.
Within these digital spaces, women are routinely dehumanized and blamed for the social rejection these men experience. Most individuals who participate in these online forums never commit acts of physical harm. A small fraction, however, radicalizes to the point of committing targeted violence against women and society at large. This escalation is often driven by a sense of aggrieved entitlement, a psychological state where individuals feel they are being denied something they inherently deserve.
When these expectations go unmet, some individuals view violence as a justified method to reclaim their perceived masculine authority. Christopher J. Collins, an assistant professor of social work at Salem State University, led a research team to investigate the sequence of events that transforms online hatred into real-world bloodshed. The team recognized that predicting violence is incredibly difficult. Because many people who display warning signs never actually commit a crime, threat assessment professionals face a high rate of false positives.
To improve these assessments, Collins and his colleagues wanted to isolate the specific historical and immediate factors that push an at-risk individual over the edge. To achieve this, the researchers utilized a technique called Root Cause Analysis. Investigators routinely use this method in fields like medicine and aviation to review adverse events and prevent future accidents. Rather than trying to predict the future, Root Cause Analysis works entirely in hindsight.
Researchers start with a specific disastrous event and systematically build a reverse timeline. This process allows them to identify both the immediate triggers and the long-standing conditions that paved the way for the tragedy. The team selected four specific instances of incel-related mass violence in the United States for their analysis. These included the 2014 Isla Vista mass murders in California and the 2015 Umpqua Community College shooting in Oregon.
They also examined the 2017 Aztec High School shooting in New Mexico and the 2018 hot yoga studio shooting in Tallahassee, Florida. The researchers chose these cases because they occurred after the Isla Vista attack, an event that acts as a modern turning point for violent incel ideology. For each case, the investigators gathered a wide array of public and official documents. They reviewed police reports, autopsy results, personal manifestos, and public online posts.
By cross-referencing these varied sources, the team built highly detailed, backward-looking timelines of each offender’s life. This approach allowed them to categorize the different risk factors that appeared across the four events. The researchers separated their findings into two distinct categories. The first category included long-term conditions that persisted over years, which the team called distal risk factors.
The second category involved immediate events and systemic failures occurring close to the time of the attacks, known as proximal pathways. Every single offender in the study shared a specific set of long-term risk factors. These included severe social isolation, extreme narcissism, and a deeply entrenched online presence. Instead of forming meaningful relationships in their physical communities, the attackers spent vast amounts of time in extremist forums.
In these digital spaces, they consumed and shared hateful, anti-woman rhetoric alongside other extreme political content. This constant exposure to extreme beliefs likely desensitized the men to violence. It also reinforced their distorted views of themselves as superior beings who were unfairly victimized by society. Three of the four men also had a documented history of being bullied during their youth.
Mental health struggles were another persistent theme across the offenders’ histories. All four attackers experienced and documented suicidal thoughts at various points in their lives. The researchers noted that suicidal ideation is incredibly common within the incel subculture. The attackers often viewed their violent acts as a final display of power that would culminate in their own deaths.
As one piece of cited literature explains, “the violence risk is not just for others, but for the Incel themselves.” The study also revealed that three of the offenders had been prescribed psychiatric medications at some point. However, autopsy reports and police interviews indicated they did not consistently take these medications as directed. The researchers cautioned that while mental health treatment is intended to improve functioning, professionals must remain alert to inconsistent usage.
When examining the proximal pathways, a glaring pattern emerged regarding missed interventions. In all four cases, close family members noticed alarming behaviors but failed to take effective action. Relatives often expressed concern but did not report the warning signs to professionals who could have intervened. Even when authorities were alerted, the response was consistently inadequate.
Three of the attackers had previous interactions with law enforcement regarding threatening online behavior or stalking. Despite these encounters, authorities never escalated their investigations beyond basic welfare checks. Police received tips about violent, misogynistic songs and online posts, but these warnings were ultimately deemed non-actionable. The researchers noted that these systemic failures to intervene allowed the offenders to proceed with their plans unchecked.
Easy access to firearms acted as the final immediate pathway to violence in every case. All four attackers legally purchased the guns used in their crimes. In most instances, they bought these weapons in the days or weeks just before the attack, indicating a clear period of preplanning. At the time of these shootings, none of the states involved had laws allowing authorities to temporarily remove firearms from individuals displaying warning signs.
Extreme risk protection orders have since been enacted in these states, but their absence at the time proved fatal. The research team outlined a few limitations to their investigative work. The study relied heavily on publicly available information, meaning some confidential medical or legal details remained inaccessible. Disparities in media coverage and the sealing of official records can lead to an incomplete understanding of an offender’s exact psychological state.
Because the results were not statistically significant in a predictive sense, the findings cannot act as an absolute checklist for future violence. Additionally, the small sample size of four American cases limits how broadly these patterns can be applied. The combination of specific cultural dynamics and open gun laws in the United States may create a unique environment for radicalization. The researchers suggested that future investigations should examine international cases, such as the 2018 van attack in Toronto or the 2021 shooting in Plymouth, England.
The study, “Incel Perpetrated Violence: Distal and Proximal Risk Factors and Pathways,” was authored by Christopher J. Collins, Melissa G. Murphy, Katherine Reid, and James J. Clark.
