Men who own pets show higher levels of empathy towards animals compared to farmers and those without pets, according to a new study published in Animal Welfare. This research provides insights into how different experiences with animals can shape men’s attitudes and feelings towards animal welfare.
Previous research has hinted at a connection between pet ownership and empathy towards animals. Studies have suggested that caring for pets can increase positive attitudes towards animals in general, a concept known as the “Pets as Ambassadors” hypothesis.
However, the relationship between different types of animal interactions and empathy, particularly among men, remains unclear. Men generally report lower levels of empathy towards animals than women, and understanding how various animal experiences influence men’s empathy could have significant implications for animal welfare and human-animal interactions.
“My own experiences as a dog owner is what sparked my interest in the Pets as Ambassadors Hypothesis, because I’ve always felt that my empathy towards other non-human animals expanded overtime, as a result of the bond I shared with my dog,” said study author Jessica Oliva, a senior lecturer in psychology at James Cook University. “It was as though I would see her eyes in the faces of every other animal that was suffering. I knew other owners must have felt something similar. The focus on men in this study was simply because they are so underrepresented in this kind of research.”
The researchers conducted a survey targeting Australian men aged 18 and over, dividing participants into three groups based on their animal experiences: pet owners, farmers, and non-pet owners. The survey included demographic questions, an assessment of animal-directed empathy using the Animal Empathy Scale (AES), and an open-ended question about participants’ beliefs regarding animal cognition and emotions. A total of 91 participants were included in the study, with 41 identifying as pet owners, 28 as farmers, and 22 as non-pet owners.
The findings revealed significant differences in empathy levels among the groups. Pet owners exhibited the highest levels of empathy towards animals, scoring significantly higher on the AES compared to both farmers and non-pet owners. Farmers, who often had extensive experience with various animals in a work context, displayed lower empathy levels than pet owners but higher than non-pet owners. The results suggest that the personal and emotional connection involved in pet ownership plays a crucial role in fostering empathy towards animals.
“The takeaway is that animal interactions are important, we need that contact with them in order to appreciate that they have internal experiences much like our own,” Oliva told PsyPost. “However, the greatest empathic gains are likely to result from those that demand an investment of typical emotional, financial and lifestyle sacrifices necessary to care for that animal, but without the expectation of financial remuneration. Animal interactions as a result of one’s livelihood may still have a positive impact on understanding animal sentience but they might not result in the same empathic gains. Being aware of this is important for anyone working with animals.”
Qualitative analysis provided further insights into these findings. Pet owners frequently cited their personal experiences and responsibilities as primary factors shaping their beliefs about animals. In contrast, farmers emphasized their work-related interactions with animals, which often involve practical and utilitarian considerations. Non-pet owners mentioned interactions with other people’s pets as influential, though their overall empathy levels were lower.
“When we asked the farmers what non-working animals they owned, it was mostly birds or fish were reported,” Oliva said. “When they were asked what working animals they owned, all of these were dogs (with the exception of one horse). I found it surprising that none of the farmers owned a dog that was non-working. So this common ‘pet’ may not have the same ‘ambassador’ role depending on whether it is a working or non-working animal.”
But the study, like all research, has some caveats to consider. The cross-sectional design also prevents establishing causality, meaning it’s unclear whether pet ownership increases empathy or if more empathetic individuals are drawn to owning pets. Additionally, the self-report nature of the survey may introduce bias.
“We did not look at ambassadorship by species of pet or by degree of pet interactions,” Oliva noted. “This would be a good avenue for future research. We also only looked at empathy levels at one point in time, so it is possible that men with higher levels of empathy are simply more drawn to be pet owners, rather than their empathy levels increasing overtime after becoming an owner. Longitudinal research looking at empathy levels before and after pet acquisition would be able to address this.”
She also highlighted the ethical considerations inherent in pet ownership.
“While pet interactions may lead to increased animal empathy in men, ‘owning’ an animal can be argued to reflect an unequal relationship, whereby the pet lacks certain freedoms and choices,” Oliva explained. “Therefore is could be considered quite the paradox that in order to increase animal empathy, one must enter into a relationship with an animal which strips that animal of basic rights and freedoms that should arguably invoke empathic sentiments.”
“As such, the decision to own a pet should always be an extremely well thought out decision, with a commitment to care for that animal and find ways to enrich its life for the duration of its lifetime. Providing pets with as much agency as possible to make decisions about how they live their lives in our care is one way that we can achieve this. These can involve simple things such as allowing dogs to sniff on walks, allowing them the choice of different spaces to spend their time in at home, allowing them choice in when and what they eat, etc.”
The study, “Support for the ‘Pets as Ambassadors’ hypothesis in men: Higher animal empathy in Australian pet-owners vs non-owners and farmers,” was authored by Georgia Anne Frampton and Jessica Lee Oliva.
