Countries holding stronger precarious manhood beliefs tend to be less happy, study finds

An analysis of the World Happiness Report data and a global study of gender beliefs found that countries with stronger precarious manhood beliefs tend to have lower national happiness, but also lower GDP, lower life expectancy, lower social support, and heightened perceptions of corruption. The paper was published in Social Science & Medicine.

Precarious manhood beliefs are based on the idea that manhood is a social status that must be earned and can easily be lost. According to this perspective, being a “real man” is seen as something that requires constant demonstration through behavior and achievement. These beliefs suggest that masculinity is more fragile and socially judged than femininity. Because of this perceived fragility, men feel pressure to prove their masculinity in public and social situations.

Research shows that threats to masculinity can lead some men to react with increased competitiveness, aggression, or risk-taking. Precarious manhood beliefs are often reinforced by cultural norms that associate masculinity with strength, independence, and dominance. When men feel that these expectations are not met, they may experience anxiety, shame, or social insecurity. Studies have also linked strong precarious manhood beliefs to support for traditional gender roles.

Study authors James R. Mahalik and Michael P. Harris hypothesized that precarious manhood beliefs would be associated with national happiness and the factors determining national happiness across countries. More specifically, they predicted that countries with stronger precarious manhood beliefs would tend to have lower levels of happiness, lower gross domestic product (GDP), lower social support, lower perceptions of freedom, lower levels of generosity, poorer health outcomes, and higher perceptions of corruption.

These authors analyzed data from the World Happiness Report and combined it with data from a large-scale study of cross-cultural gender beliefs. The World Happiness Report is a data set created by the Gallup World Poll using data from 137 nations. In this report, approximately 1,000 respondents per country report their views every year.

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The study authors used data on happiness, gross domestic product, social support, healthy life expectancy, freedom to make choices, generosity, and corruption perception from this report. Data in the cross-cultural gender beliefs dataset came from 33,417 college students across 62 countries. By overlapping these two datasets, the researchers focused their final analysis on 59 countries.

Results showed that countries with more pronounced precarious manhood beliefs tended to have lower national happiness. They also tended to have lower GDP, lower life expectancy, lower social support, and higher perceived corruption. However, the researchers did not find a significant relationship between precarious manhood beliefs and a nation’s overall generosity or citizens’ perceived freedom to make life choices.

The authors suggest that rigid gender norms harm national economies by steering men away from essential “feminine” fields, like caregiving and education, and restricting women’s workforce participation. Furthermore, the pressure to appear tough drives risky health behaviors (like smoking and heavy drinking) and discourages emotional vulnerability, ultimately lowering life expectancy and eroding community trust. The researchers also noted that precarious masculinity ideals are often exploited by authoritarian “strongman” political leaders, which can deepen societal polarization and fragmentation.

“This study highlights the significant societal factors associated with precarious manhood beliefs, demonstrating their detrimental links to national happiness and well-being. In an era marked by the resurgence of rigid masculinity norms, these findings underscore the need to address cultural pressures that undermine collective welfare. As global societies grapple with less happiness and more social fragmentation, addressing precarious masculinity may provide a critical step toward fostering healthier, more cohesive communities,” the study authors concluded.

The study contributes to the scientific understanding of the links between precarious manhood beliefs and other important characteristics of a society. However, the correlational design of the study does not allow any causal inferences to be derived from the results. Therefore, it remains unknown whether abandoning precarious manhood beliefs increases happiness in a society, or if lower happiness strengthens precarious manhood beliefs.

The study authors note that it is entirely possible that economic hardship, lower life expectancy, and higher corruption in a society foster the perception of manhood as precarious. Additionally, the data on gender beliefs relied on college student samples, which may not fully represent the broader populations within those countries.

The paper, “Precarious manhood, precarious nations: The contribution of cultural beliefs comprising masculinity to national happiness,” was authored by James R. Mahalik and Michael P. Harris.