In a study published in the Archives of Sexual Behavior, researchers have identified femmephobia — negative attitudes toward femininity in men — as a stronger predictor of anti-gay behavior among heterosexual men than other commonly cited factors, such as social dominance. This challenges existing frameworks on discrimination and suggests a need for a shift in focus to address these deeply ingrained societal biases.
Previous studies on discrimination against gay individuals have concentrated on homophobia and hierarchical views, theorizing that prejudices stem from moral convictions or the belief in the inherent superiority of certain groups. Yet, the concept of femmephobia has remained largely underexplored until now. By employing correlational analyses, researchers have been able to draw connections between attitudes and behaviors without directly manipulating study variables — offering a window into the natural occurrence of these phenomena in the general population.
The motivation behind this study stems from a critical gap in understanding the factors that contribute to anti-gay behavior. Researchers wanted to understand how societal perceptions of gender and femininity influence discriminatory actions — proposing that femmephobia could play a pivotal role. This inquiry was driven by the hypothesis that negative views on men’s femininity might be a significant, yet overlooked, behavior that fuels this.
417 heterosexual men ranging from 18 to 35 years old were recruited from Facebook, postcard mailings, and filters — and were all surveyed to gauge their levels of femmephobia alongside other factors like social dominance orientation, right-wing authoritarianism, narcissism, and homonegativity. Through an online questionnaire, participants self-reported their anti-gay behaviors and attitudes towards men’s femininity.
The findings were striking: femmephobia accounted for 23% of the variance in anti-gay behavior, outstripping the combined explanatory power of other predictors such as social dominance orientation, and right-wing authoritarianism. Furthermore, the study revealed that social dominance only predicted anti-gay behavior in the presence of high levels of femmephobia — highlighting a complex relationship between societal biases and discrimination.
In essence, discomfort with men displaying stereotypically feminine behaviors was found to be a significant force driving heterosexual men to engage in anti-gay actions.
While the study is revealing, it crucial to consider where it may fall short — namely, in the realm of reliance on self-reported data, which raises concerns about potential bias, and the studyʼs correlational nature, due to which causality cannot necessarily be inferred from the findings.
Still, the study’s implications extend beyond academia, and can be kept in mind by practical applications for educators, clinicians, and policymakers when crafting policies or other paradigms that challenge societal norms around gender and femininity.
“Our findings emphasize that negative views toward femininity in men powerfully predict anti-gay behavior, outstripping many other previously studied factors associated with anti-gay aggression and discrimination,” the researchers concluded. “The findings suggest that when understanding anti-gay behavior, assessing attitudes toward gender and gender expression, particularly femininity, is an important piece.
“Increasingly positive attitudes toward same-sex relationships, parenting, and the general inclusion of sexual minorities within society may be proliferating. However, ingrained societal notions about the “proper” displays of femininity and acceptable reactions to violations of norms surrounding femininity may persist. These enduring perceptions might explain why anti-gay behavior remains prominent even though societal acceptance of same-sex relationships, in principle, is at an all-time high.”
Rhea Ashley Hoskin, Karen L. Blair, and Diane Holmberg from the University of Waterloo, Trent University, and Acadia University, respectively, authored the present study, “Femmephobia Is a Uniquely Powerful Predictor of Anti‑Gay Behavior.”