A recent study provides evidence that seemingly minor, temporary delays in regular paychecks can increase the risk of women experiencing intimate partner violence. The findings suggest that the emotional stress of stretching household finances over extra days can negatively impact relationship dynamics. This research was published in the Journal of Health Economics.
Intimate partner violence is a pervasive public health challenge in the United States. More than a third of women in the country experience physical violence, rape, or stalking by an intimate partner at some point in their lives. The consequences of this violence go far beyond immediate physical harm. Survivors tend to face higher rates of chronic illness, mental health conditions, and premature mortality.
Olivia Masi, a postdoctoral researcher at Aalto University and a research fellow at the Axa Gender Lab at Bocconi University, and Chiara Santantonio, a lecturer at the University of Bath, designed the study to understand how temporary disruptions to financial stability affect household safety.
“A large body of research has shown that major financial shocks, such as job loss or recessions, can increase intimate partner violence,” Masi and Santantonio said. “We wanted to understand whether much smaller and more common forms of financial strain could also matter. In particular, we were interested in the everyday frictions households face when income timing and expenses do not align, even if total income and employment do not change.”
To explore this, the authors based their analysis on the semi-monthly payment schedule common in the private sector. Under this system, workers receive their wages twice a month, usually on the fifteenth and the last day of the month. When these regular paydays fall on a weekend or a national holiday, businesses typically issue the paycheck earlier, on the preceding Friday.
While receiving money early might seem positive, it changes the timeline for the next paycheck. The subsequent pay period becomes longer than usual, meaning households have to stretch the same amount of money over a greater number of days. The researchers refer to these longer periods as financial distress or days of stretch. Because these calendar shifts happen randomly, they provide an objective way to measure the impact of unexpected financial strain.
To test their hypothesis, the scientists analyzed monthly records from the National Crime Victimization Survey spanning from 1995 to 2019. Their main dataset included 3,545,586 observations from 221,436 women. They focused specifically on female respondents in couples where at least one partner worked in the private sector, as these individuals were the most likely to experience the semi-monthly pay schedule adjustments.
The analysis reveals that short-term financial distress significantly increases the incidence of intimate partner violence. The findings point to measurable shifts in household safety triggered by brief income delays.
“What surprised us most was that such a small and temporary shock could have a measurable effect,” Masi and Santantonio told PsyPost. “We are not studying job loss or a major income decline, but a brief period in which households have to stretch their finances for a few additional days.”
“In our preferred specification, one additional day of financial ‘stretch’ increases the probability of intimate partner violence by about 20 percent relative to months without distress,” the authors explained. “This is a relative increase, and the baseline monthly probability of victimization is low, so the absolute change is small.”
The effect tends to be strongest when the prolonged pay period happens at the end of the month. This pattern aligns with typical billing cycles for most families.
“It was also striking that the effects are especially pronounced when the stretch occurs toward the end of the month,” Masi and Santantonio added. “This is consistent with the idea that the timing of non-deferrable expenses, such as rent or bills, can make financial pressure particularly salient.”
The emotional and financial toll of these pay delays hits certain demographic groups harder than others. The increase in violence was highly concentrated among households that are already vulnerable to financial strain. For example, women in households earning less than $25,000 a year experienced a much higher risk during these stretched pay periods. Households with children also saw elevated risks, likely because families with children face greater baseline financial needs.
The researchers also looked at whether it mattered who experienced the delayed paycheck. They found no significant effect in couples where only one partner worked in the private sector. The strongest increases in violence occurred when both partners worked in the private sector. This suggests that the total size and intensity of the financial shock are the primary drivers of the resulting stress.
To understand the daily behaviors behind these numbers, Masi and Santantonio examined purchasing data from the Consumer Expenditure Survey from 1998 to 2011. They also analyzed daily routine information from the American Time Use Survey from 2003 to 2019. These additional datasets allowed the researchers to track exactly how families adapted to longer pay periods.
During stretched pay periods, households significantly reduced their spending on instant consumption items, like food eaten at restaurants and leisure activities. At the same time, individuals spent almost two additional minutes per day actively researching purchases and comparing prices across stores. Couples also spent more time together with their children, indicating a shift in household routines and a potential reassignment of parenting duties.
“We would also want to preempt the interpretation that the effect is driven by a general rise in crime or by increased substance use,” the scientists said. “We do not find a comparable increase in other crimes, and our expenditure analysis does not show increased spending on alcohol or tobacco during these periods.”
“The main takeaway is that financial distress does not need to be dramatic or permanent to have serious consequences,” Masi and Santantonio noted. “Even a short delay or disruption in household liquidity can increase stress within the household and raise the risk of intimate partner violence.”
“More broadly, the study shows that the timing and predictability of money matter,” the scientists added. “Payment schedules, bills, rent, and the ability to plan are not just technical details of household finance; they can shape family stress and, in vulnerable situations, women’s safety.”
“However, the practical significance is important because these shocks are recurrent and affect a non-negligible share of households,” the authors explained. “A small increase in risk, when applied to a large population and repeated over time, can translate into meaningful social costs.”
While this research provides an objective look at financial stress, there are a few limitations to keep in mind. The national survey data used does not specify exactly which respondents were paid on a semi-monthly schedule.
“We therefore identify households that are likely to be exposed based on whether at least one partner works in the private sector, so our estimates should be interpreted as intent-to-treat effects,” Masi and Santantonio cautioned. This means the calculations measure the impact on the broader group likely to be exposed to the schedule change, rather than confirming each individual’s exact pay date.
Readers should also avoid interpreting these findings as proof that money issues are the sole cause of domestic abuse.
“Another caveat is that our findings should not be read as saying that financial distress is the only, or even the main, cause of intimate partner violence,” the researchers said. “IPV is a complex phenomenon with many determinants. Our contribution is to show that short-term liquidity pressure can be one factor that worsens household dynamics and increases risk.”
“A central message of the paper is that domestic violence is not separate from the economic organization of everyday life,” they added. “Of course, financial stress does not explain everything, but it can aggravate fragile situations and turn temporary hardship into a risk for women’s safety.”
Future research could expand on this topic by exploring downstream criminal justice outcomes, such as actual arrests or incarceration rates during these stretched pay periods. Additionally, exploring how different banking interventions might reduce this stress could offer practical solutions for vulnerable families.
“One goal is to better understand which policies or institutional arrangements can reduce these short-term financial pressures,” the scientists stated. “For example, more predictable payment systems, timely emergency support, or short-term liquidity tools could potentially matter not only for material well-being but also for household safety.”
“This also suggests that policies aimed at reducing financial instability may have benefits beyond standard economic outcomes,” Masi and Santantonio said. “Making payments more regular and helping households bridge short liquidity gaps could reduce an often invisible source of conflict.”
“A broader next step is to keep studying how the organization of economic life affects family dynamics,” the researchers concluded. “Many policies are evaluated mainly through income or employment outcomes, but our results suggest that timing, uncertainty, and liquidity constraints may also have important social consequences.”
The study, “Overstretched: Financial distress and intimate partner violence in the U.S.,” was authored by Olivia Masi and Chiara Santantonio.
