A new analysis using national survey data indicates that conservative Protestant men in the United States are not more likely than other men to feel insecure about the size or appearance of their genitals, nor are they more likely to attempt enlargement. These findings challenge a theory that has gained attention in recent years, suggesting a cultural link between evangelical religious beliefs and phallic insecurity. The study, conducted by sociologists Terrence D. Hill and Amy M. Burdette, was published in the Journal of Religion and Health.
The study is a direct response to earlier research proposing that regions with high concentrations of evangelical Christians show more online activity related to male enhancement. In particular, a 2021 study by Perry and Whitehead suggested that men in these areas may be responding to cultural pressure that links masculinity with sexual dominance and bodily ideals, including penis size. Their argument was that certain religious leaders contribute to a sense of masculine inadequacy, reinforcing the belief that men are falling short of ideal manhood.
While Perry and Whitehead’s original work relied on state-level internet search trends, it did not assess whether individual men who identify as conservative Protestants actually internalize these concerns. This limitation led to questions about whether the theory applies to individual behaviors and attitudes. Hill and Burdette’s study seeks to clarify this by looking directly at self-reports from a large, representative sample of American men.
To test these ideas, the researchers used data from the 2023 Masculinity, Sexual Health, and Politics survey. This national survey sampled over 2,000 adult men living in the United States, gathering responses through a secure online platform administered by the National Opinion Research Center. Respondents were asked about their satisfaction with the size and appearance of their penises when fully erect, and whether they had ever tried any method of penis enlargement, including devices, supplements, or surgeries.
Religious affiliation was measured using six categories: conservative Protestants (evangelical or born-again Protestants), moderate Protestants, Catholics, other Christians, members of other religions (such as Judaism, Buddhism, or Islam), and those with no religious affiliation. The researchers also accounted for a wide range of factors that might influence body image, including age, race, education, income, political views, social desirability bias, and obesity.
Using statistical models, the study examined whether conservative Protestant men differed from other men in their responses, while adjusting for these background characteristics.
Overall, Hill and Burdette found little support for the theory linking evangelical culture to insecurity about penis size. Conservative Protestant men reported similar levels of dissatisfaction with the appearance and size of their penises compared to men from most other religious groups and men who claimed no religious affiliation.
The only notable differences appeared when comparing conservative Protestant men to those who belonged to non-Christian religious traditions such as Judaism, Islam, or Buddhism. Men from these groups reported somewhat lower dissatisfaction with penis appearance and size. These differences remained after adjusting for background factors, but their interpretation remains unclear due to the diversity within the “other religions” category.
A slight difference also appeared between conservative Protestant men and men with no religious affiliation, with the former expressing somewhat more dissatisfaction with penis appearance. However, this difference disappeared once body mass was taken into account. Men with higher body mass were more likely to report dissatisfaction, and conservative Protestant men were more likely to be classified as obese. This pattern suggests that any religious difference in penis-related concerns may reflect physical characteristics rather than ideological or cultural ones.
When it came to actual behavior, the researchers found no differences across religious groups in the likelihood of attempting penis enlargement. In other words, conservative Protestant men were no more likely than others to try products or procedures to increase penis size. Only two factors showed any relationship to penis enlargement efforts: higher income was linked to lower odds of having attempted enlargement, and greater social desirability (a tendency to present oneself in a positive light) was associated with less likelihood of admitting to such behaviors.
These findings offer a more direct test of the theory that evangelical culture fosters masculine insecurity linked to penis size. Unlike earlier studies that relied on aggregate data or internet search trends, this study focused on individual experiences. The results do not support the idea that conservative Protestant identity leads men to feel especially inadequate about their genitals or to seek enlargement.
The authors note that the findings are more consistent with an earlier 2022 study by Hill and colleagues, which also failed to find links between conservative Protestantism and broader measures of sexual insecurity, including performance anxiety and use of erectile dysfunction medication.
But the new study, like all research, has limitations. Since the study relied on self-reported data, there is always the possibility that men may not have answered honestly due to embarrassment. However, the survey design was meant to encourage candid responses, and the researchers adjusted for social desirability bias. The study is also cross-sectional, meaning it captures a single moment in time and cannot determine causality or long-term effects.
The findings suggest that scholars should reconsider the theory of evangelicalism and phallic insecurity, at least in its current form. The authors argue that claims about widespread cultural effects need to be grounded in individual-level data that show clear patterns of behavior and belief. Without this evidence, they suggest, the theory may not hold up under scrutiny.
The study also raises questions about the reliability of using tools like Google Trends to make inferences about psychological or cultural phenomena. While big data can reveal patterns, it may not accurately reflect the intentions or identities of the people generating those data points.
The study, “Conservative Protestantism and Penis Size: More Evidence Against the Theory of Evangelicalism and Phallocentric Masculine Insecurity,” was published August 17, 2025.
