New research sheds light on the kinds of people most likely to feel ostracized, revealing a link between personality traits, attachment styles, and perceptions of social exclusion. Published in The Journal of Psychology, the study finds that individuals with certain antagonistic personality traits, known as the “dark tetrad,” and those with insecure attachment orientations tend to feel ignored or excluded more often than others. These findings highlight important psychological factors that may increase sensitivity to social rejection.
Previous research on ostracism has primarily focused on short-term effects, with little emphasis on personality traits that might heighten the perception of social exclusion. This new study broadens the scope by investigating long-term experiences of ostracism and including both antagonistic personality traits—collectively known as the “dark tetrad”—and attachment orientations, which may influence sensitivity to exclusion.
The “dark tetrad” refers to four socially aversive traits: narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism. Narcissism is characterized by self-centeredness, grandiosity, and a constant need for admiration, often driving individuals to prioritize their own needs. Machiavellianism entails a strategic, manipulative approach, where individuals exploit others through deceit to achieve personal goals. Psychopathy involves impulsivity, a lack of empathy, and a tendency toward antisocial behavior. Sadism, in turn, is marked by pleasure in causing others pain or harm, reflecting an enjoyment in inflicting suffering.
Attachment orientations, rooted in attachment theory, describe patterns of behavior and expectations in relationships, shaped by early interactions with caregivers. These orientations are categorized along two dimensions: attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance. Attachment anxiety reflects a fear of abandonment, leading people to seek reassurance and approval, sometimes resulting in clinginess. Attachment avoidance, on the other hand, involves discomfort with intimacy and a preference for independence, prompting individuals to emotionally distance themselves.
The researchers aimed to identify hows these traits were related to perceiving ostracism, potentially guiding interventions to alleviate associated distress.
“Exploring the topic of ostracism has always been of interest to me, even before doing my PhD, as I observed people being excluded by healthcare professionals and thought, how must that feel? How do people cope with these experiences?” said study author Daniel Waldeck, an assistant professor of psychology at Coventry University and co-author of How to Make the Most of Your Psychology Degree: Study Skills, Employability and Professional Development.
“In this paper, we wanted to explore who is more likely to perceive ostracism. There was a lack of empirical literature exploring the so-called dark personality traits (which is itself quite fascinating) and how this is linked with perceived ostracism. Given there was some research to suggest that narcissists may react aggressively to ostracism, it was interesting to examine whether people who score high in narcissism in particular would be more prone to feeling more excluded.”
The study involved a sample of 604 adults who participated in an online survey. The researchers utilized a questionnaire to assess participants’ levels of antagonistic traits, including narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism. They measured attachment orientations using questions that evaluated tendencies toward attachment anxiety and avoidance, asking participants to rate statements like “I’m afraid other people may abandon me” (for anxiety) and “I don’t feel comfortable opening up to others” (for avoidance). Lastly, they adapted a workplace ostracism scale to measure how often participants felt ignored or excluded in their everyday lives over the last six months.
The researchers identified five distinct personality groups based on combinations of antagonistic traits. The “High Antagonizers” group included individuals with consistently high scores across all four dark traits—narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism. Another group, the “Spiteful Manipulators,” was characterized by high scores specifically in Machiavellianism and sadism.
The “Average High” and “Average Low” groups represented participants with moderate scores across the four antagonistic traits but at different levels. “Average High” individuals exhibited slightly elevated, though not extreme, levels of these traits. The “Average Low” group had similarly moderate scores but at lower levels than “Average High.” Finally, the “Non-Antagonizers” group scored low across all antagonistic traits, representing individuals who generally avoid behaviors associated with the dark tetrad.
The researchers found that the “High Antagonizers” group reported noticeably higher levels of perceived ostracism than any other group. This indicates that individuals with elevated levels of all four antagonistic traits tend to feel excluded or ignored more often, possibly because their social interactions are negatively impacted by these traits.
“We found that people who score high on all of the dark traits perceived significantly more ostracism than those lower in these traits,” Waldeck told PsyPost. “This suggests that a particular group, which we called the High Antagonizers, may be a particularly sensitive to feelings of exclusion. Given that people who score high on these traits may engage in bullying or in the case of narcissism may react aggressively once they feel ostracised could be a risk factor for intimate partner violence (among other potential contexts).”
Interestingly, the “Spiteful Manipulators” group did not report significantly higher levels of perceived ostracism compared to the “Average High” and “Average Low” groups. This suggests that possessing one or two high antagonistic traits does not automatically predispose someone to perceive social exclusion; rather, it is the cumulative presence of all four traits that seems to intensify the perception of ostracism.
When looking at individual predictors, several stood out. Psychopathy was a positive predictor, indicating that individuals with higher psychopathic traits are more likely to feel ostracized. Narcissism, however, was a negative predictor, implying that individuals with higher narcissistic traits report lower levels of perceived ostracism.
“It was surprising to see that when looking at the influence of narcissism alone, there is a different effect,” Waldeck said. “This was noted in our supplementary information. We found that in isolation, narcissism has a negative relationship with perceived ostracism.”
“In other words, the higher the levels of reported narcissism, the less they feel ostracised. Which makes sense — people who are narcissistic will likely have protection from such feelings due to an inflated ego (e.g., ‘why would people ignore me, I am awesome’). However, what our study shows is that there is a particular group (the High Antagonizers) which includes high levels of narcissism, which show the reverse – they perceive more ostracism.”
In addition to these personality-based findings, attachment orientation also played a role. Both attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance were linked with higher perceptions of ostracism. Participants with attachment anxiety, who often fear abandonment, were more likely to perceive exclusion, possibly due to heightened sensitivity to social cues. Those with attachment avoidance, who prefer emotional distance, may also experience a sense of exclusion as they habitually withdraw or distance themselves, potentially interpreting normal social dynamics as exclusionary.
But as with all research, there are some caveats. The study relied on self-reported data, which can be subject to bias, and they did not investigate how personality traits might change over time due to experiences of social exclusion. Additionally, the study did not explore potential behavioral outcomes of perceived ostracism, such as aggression or social withdrawal. Future studies could focus on these aspects, exploring how different personality profiles react to feelings of ostracism in various contexts.
The study, “Unraveling Perceived Ostracism: The Role of Antagonistic Traits and Attachment Orientation,” was authored by Daniel Waldeck, Eryn Berman-Roberts, Chris Smyth, Paolo Riva, James Adie, Andrew John Holliman, and Ian Tyndall.
