Economic uncertainty linked to greater male aversion to female breadwinning

A new cross-national analysis indicates that men generally hold more negative views toward female breadwinning than women do. This aversion appears particularly acute in countries where men face high unemployment rates. The research suggests that economic uncertainty may drive men to cling more tightly to traditional gender roles to protect their sense of masculinity. The study appears in the journal Social Science Research.

Sociologists have observed a global increase in marriages where the wife earns more than her husband. Despite this shift in economic reality, cultural attitudes often lag behind. When society stigmatizes these relationships, it can lead to mismatches in the marriage market. Women with high earnings may struggle to find partners, and men may feel discouraged from marrying women who outearn them. This friction can result in lower marriage rates and increased conflict within existing unions.

Sangsoo Lee, a researcher at Korea University in South Korea, sought to understand the drivers behind these attitudes. Lee investigated how individual beliefs connect to broader national contexts. The study aimed to determine whether factors like national gender equality or economic instability influence how men and women perceive female breadwinning.

To conduct this analysis, Lee utilized data from the seventh wave of the World Values Survey. This extensive project collected responses between 2017 and 2022. The final dataset included nearly 79,000 respondents across 59 countries and regions. These locations ranged from highly developed nations like the United States and Germany to developing economies such as Nigeria and Pakistan.

To measure attitudes, the survey asked participants to evaluate a specific statement. The prompt read: “If a woman earns more money than her husband, it is almost certain to cause problems.” Respondents indicated their level of agreement or disagreement.

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The study identified a clear disparity between the sexes. Men were generally more likely than women to agree that female breadwinning causes problems. After accounting for various personal characteristics, the analysis showed that men had approximately 11 percent higher odds of expressing aversion compared to women. This supports the theory that men may view female breadwinning as a threat to their status. In many cultures, masculine identity remains tied to the role of the primary provider.

Lee also examined how the labor market structure in each country correlated with these views. In nations where women participate in the workforce at rates similar to men, the general population expressed less aversion to female breadwinning. This trend applied to both men and women. It appears that structural gender equality at the national level fosters greater cultural acceptance of women earning higher incomes.

Economic development played a similar role. In wealthier countries with a higher gross domestic product, people held more accepting views. In these developed economies, the difference in opinion between men and women tended to be smaller. For example, previous research has shown that in Western nations like Sweden and the United States, resistance to female breadwinning is relatively low. Lee’s data confirmed that as countries become wealthier, gender attitudes tend to converge toward acceptance.

However, a distinct and revealing pattern emerged regarding male unemployment. In countries with high rates of men’s unemployment, the gap in attitudes between men and women widened considerably. While women’s attitudes remained relatively stable regardless of the unemployment rate, men in these environments reported much higher levels of aversion.

For instance, in a theoretical country with a male unemployment rate of 3 percent, men and women showed similar levels of discomfort. But in a country with an 18 percent male unemployment rate, men became roughly 6 percentage points more likely than women to view female breadwinning as problematic.

Lee interprets this finding through the lens of the “masculine overcompensation thesis.” This sociological concept suggests that when men face threats to their traditional status, they often react by embracing extreme masculine behaviors or beliefs. In this case, the threat of unemployment and economic irrelevance may lead men to emphasize the importance of the male breadwinner role. They appear to reject the idea of a high-earning wife more strongly when their own economic prospects are uncertain.

These findings align with and expand upon a growing body of evidence regarding gender, income, and well-being. Recent research on the “super rich” in the United States highlights the persistence of the male breadwinner model. A study analyzing thirty years of data found that over half of heterosexual couples in the top one percent of households rely solely on a male income. This rate is double that of less affluent couples.

The persistence of these arrangements at the top of the economic ladder suggests that the “diamond ceiling” remains intact. It also implies that men continue to hold the majority of societal power associated with wealth.

The psychological impact of breaking these norms also appears consistent across different studies. Research analyzing European data found that men reported lower life satisfaction when their female partners were the sole earners. This distress was prevalent even in countries typically seen as gender-egalitarian, such as Finland. Men in these situations often suffered more mentally than women did. This supports Lee’s conclusion that men perceive a loss of breadwinning status as a profound personal failure.

Further research into psychological distress reinforces this connection. A study from the University of Bath observed a “U-shaped” relationship between spousal income and male distress. Men’s stress levels declined as their wives’ earnings approached 40 percent of the household total. However, as women’s earnings surpassed that point, the husbands’ distress levels gradually increased. They found the situation most stressful when they were entirely economically dependent on their partners.

The connection between traditional views and physiological health is also well documented. A study published in the Journal of Marriage and Family examined biomarkers for chronic stress in men. That research found that men who were financially dependent on their wives and held traditional gender ideologies experienced higher levels of physiological stress. In contrast, men with more egalitarian views did not suffer the same physical toll when they earned less than their spouses. This aligns with Lee’s finding that rigid gender norms can be harmful.

Lee’s work also complements findings regarding the long-term stability of earnings. Research published in Research in Social Stratification and Mobility tracked couples for decades. That study found that gender-egalitarian earning patterns are becoming more common. However, these patterns are highly stratified by socioeconomic status. Couples with higher education and earnings were more likely to maintain a dual-earner status. This aligns with Lee’s observation that economic development correlates with more acceptance of female earners.

Despite these insights, the study does face certain limitations. The measurement of aversion relied on a single survey question about income. It did not capture attitudes toward other forms of status difference, such as a wife having a higher education level than her husband. Income may be a unique marker of masculinity that triggers specific responses.

Additionally, the study assessed these factors at a specific moment in time rather than tracking changes over years. It is difficult to fully disentangle the overlapping influences of economic development and cultural values.

Future research could benefit from examining how these macro-level factors interact over time. It remains unclear why the gender gap narrows in more developed countries. Understanding the mechanisms that drive this convergence could help societies navigate the changing landscape of marriage and work. For now, the data suggests that while women are increasingly taking on breadwinning roles, the cultural accommodation of this shift depends heavily on the economic security of men.

The study, “Men’s and women’s aversion to female breadwinning: Linking individual attitudes to macro-level contexts,” was authored by Sangsoo Lee.