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Going to school helps children learn how to read and solve math problems, but it also appears to upgrade the fundamental operating system of their brains. A new analysis suggests that the structured environment of formal education leads to improvements in executive functions, which are the cognitive skills required to control behavior and achieve goals. These findings were published in the Journal of Experimental Child Psychology.
To understand why this research matters, one must first understand what executive functions are. Psychologists use this term to describe a specific set of mental abilities that allow people to manage their thoughts and actions. These skills act like an air traffic control system for the brain. They help a person pay attention, switch focus between tasks, and remember instructions.
There are three main components to this system. The first is working memory, which is the ability to hold information in your mind and use it over a short period. The second is inhibitory control. This is the ability to ignore distractions and resist the urge to do something impulsive. The third is cognitive flexibility. This allows a person to shift their thinking when the rules change or when a new problem arises.
Researchers have known for a long time that these skills get better as children get older. A seven-year-old is almost always better at sitting still and following directions than a four-year-old. The difficult question for scientists has been determining what causes this change. It is hard to tell if children improve simply because their brains are biologically maturing or if the experience of going to school actually speeds up the process.
This is the question that Jamie Donenfeld and her colleagues sought to answer. Donenfeld is a researcher at the University of Massachusetts Boston. She worked alongside Mahita Mudundi, Erik Blaser, and Zsuzsa Kaldy, who are also affiliated with the Department of Psychology at the same university. The team wanted to isolate the specific impact of the classroom environment from the natural effects of aging.
To do this, the researchers relied on a clever quirk of the educational system known as the school entry cutoff date. In many school districts, a child must turn five by a specific date, such as September 1, to enter kindergarten. This creates a natural experiment.
Consider two children who are practically the same age. One was born on August 31, and the other was born on September 2. The child born in August enters kindergarten. The child born in September must wait another year. By comparing these two groups, scientists can look at children who are virtually identical in biological maturity but have vastly different experiences with formal schooling.
The research team did not conduct a single new experiment with a specific group of children. Instead, they performed a meta-analysis. This is a statistical method that allows scientists to combine the results of many previous studies to find a common trend. They searched through databases for studies published between 1995 and 2023.
They started with over 400 potential studies. They screened these records to find ones that met strict criteria. The studies had to compare children of similar ages who had different levels of schooling. They also had to use objective measures of executive function.
The team ultimately identified 12 studies that fit all their requirements. These studies included data from approximately 1,611 children. The participants ranged in age from about four and a half to nine years old. The studies covered various locations, including the United States, Germany, Israel, and Scotland.
By pooling the data from these different sources, the researchers calculated a standardized mean difference. This number represents the size of the “schooling effect.” The analysis revealed a small but consistent positive effect. The data showed that attending school does improve a child’s executive functions.
The improvement was not massive, but it was reliable. The researchers described the effect as modest. It suggests that the experience of school provides a unique boost to cognitive development that goes beyond just getting older.
The researchers also conducted a secondary analysis using the longitudinal studies in their set. These were studies that followed children over time. They compared two types of groups. The first group consisted of children who did not advance a grade level during the study period, such as those remaining in preschool. This group provided a baseline for how much executive function improves due to natural maturation alone.
The second group consisted of children who completed a grade, such as first grade, during the same timeframe. This group represented the combined effect of biological maturation plus the experience of schooling.
The results showed a clear difference. The children who experienced a year of schooling showed greater gains in executive functions than those who only grew a year older. The estimated effect size for the schooling group was higher than for the maturation-only group. This supports the idea that the classroom environment acts as a training ground for the brain.
It is important to consider why school has this effect. The authors argue that formal education places heavy demands on a child. Students must sit still for extended periods. They must listen to instructions from teachers. They have to wait their turn to speak. They must remember rules and complete tasks even when they are tired or bored.
This daily routine serves as an intense practice session for inhibitory control and working memory. The state of Massachusetts, for example, requires 900 hours of structured learning time per year. That is a massive amount of practice.
The authors compared this to commercial “brain training” games. Many companies sell video games that claim to improve cognitive skills. However, research has largely shown that these games do not work very well. Players get better at the specific game, but the skills do not transfer to real life.
The researchers suggest that school succeeds where these games fail because of the intensity and duration of the experience. A few hours of gaming cannot compare to hundreds of hours of managing one’s behavior in a social classroom setting. The context of school is immersive. It requires children to use their executive functions in real-world situations to achieve social and academic goals.
There are limitations to this study that should be noted. The number of studies included in the final analysis was relatively small. Finding research that strictly followed the cutoff-date design is difficult. This means the total pool of participants was not as large as it is in some medical meta-analyses.
The studies also used a wide variety of tasks to measure executive functions. Some used memory games involving numbers. Others used tasks where children had to sort cards by changing rules. Some tested inhibitory control by asking children to touch their toes when told to touch their head.
This variety makes it harder to compare results perfectly across different papers. The educational systems in the different countries also vary. Kindergarten in Switzerland might focus more on play than kindergarten in the United States. This could influence how much “training” the children actually receive.
The authors also noted that they could not examine specific transitions in detail. It is possible that the jump from preschool to kindergarten has a bigger impact than the move from first to second grade. The current data did not allow them to break down the results by specific grade levels with high precision.
Future research is needed to understand which parts of schooling are the most effective. It might be the structured curriculum. It might be the social interaction with peers. It might be the relationship with the teacher. Understanding the specific mechanisms could help educators design classrooms that better support cognitive development.
The researchers also point out that the tests used in these studies are laboratory tasks. They are artificial by nature. Future studies should try to measure how children use these skills in real-world scenarios. We need to know if better scores on a memory test translate to better behavior on the playground or at home.
The study, “School changes minds: A meta-analysis shows that schooling modestly improves children’s executive functions,” was authored by Jamie Donenfeld, Mahita Mudundi, Erik Blaser, and Zsuzsa Kaldy.
