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A recent study published in the journal Personality and Individual Differences has a connection between the way parents discipline their children and the development of undesirable personality traits later in life. The findings indicate that experiencing harsh parenting, particularly psychological aggression and severe physical assault, during childhood is associated with a higher likelihood of exhibiting traits from the Dark Tetrad – a group of personality characteristics that include narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism – in adulthood.
The Dark Tetrad is a concept in psychology that brings together four distinct but related personality traits that are considered socially aversive. Narcissism is characterized by an inflated sense of self-importance and a need for admiration. Machiavellianism involves manipulation and exploitation of others for personal gain. Psychopathy is marked by a lack of empathy, impulsivity, and antisocial behavior. Sadism is the tendency to derive pleasure from inflicting pain or suffering on others. These traits, while existing on a spectrum in the general population, are often associated with negative interpersonal outcomes and can be detrimental to both individuals exhibiting them and those around them.
Prior research has established a connection between negative experiences in childhood and antisocial tendencies in adulthood. Scientists are working to understand the specific mechanisms that explain this link. One area of focus is the role of personality development. It is thought that early life experiences, particularly those within the family, can shape an individual’s personality in ways that either increase or decrease the likelihood of developing Dark Tetrad traits.
Some theories suggest that individuals growing up in harsh or unpredictable environments may develop certain personality traits as a way to adapt and survive. These adaptive strategies, while potentially helpful in challenging childhood contexts, might manifest as Dark Tetrad traits in adulthood. For example, manipulation and a focus on self-interest (Machiavellianism) could be seen as ways to navigate an unstable home life. Similarly, a lack of empathy and impulsivity (psychopathy) might develop as a response to consistent maltreatment.
While genetic factors are known to play a role in personality, environmental influences, especially parenting styles, are considered significant contributors to the development of these traits. The new study aimed to explore specifically how different types of parental discipline, ranging from non-violent methods to severe aggression, relate to the Dark Tetrad traits in adulthood.
“Our interest in this topic stems from the extensive literature linking childhood adversity to antisocial behaviors in adulthood,” said study author David Pineda, an assistant professor and director of the Forensic Psychology Unit at Miguel Hernández University of Elche.
“While many studies have explored how adverse experiences impact mental health and emotional regulation, fewer have focused on their role in shaping dark personality traits such as Machiavellianism, psychopathy, narcissism, and sadism. Understanding the early environmental factors that contribute to these traits provides valuable insight into personality development and may help inform interventions aimed at mitigating negative long-term outcomes.”
For their study, the researchers recruited 370 adult participants from Spain. The participants, whose ages ranged from 18 to 80, were primarily recruited through social media platforms like Instagram, Facebook, and LinkedIn. The majority of participants were women (nearly 74%), and a large portion were university students or graduates. Participants were asked to complete an online survey that included several questionnaires. To measure narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy, the researchers used a shortened version of the Dark Triad scale.
This questionnaire contains statements like “People see me as a natural leader” (narcissism), “Most people can be manipulated” (Machiavellianism), and “People often say I’m out of control” (psychopathy). Participants rated how much they agreed with these statements on a scale from “totally disagree” to “totally agree.” Sadism was assessed using a separate questionnaire specifically designed to measure everyday sadism. This scale included items such as “I think about hurting people who irritate me,” which participants also rated on a similar agreement scale.
To assess childhood experiences with parental discipline, the researchers used the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales. This questionnaire asks participants to recall how often their parents used different discipline tactics when they were children. The questionnaire was slightly modified to focus on the frequency of these tactics. The discipline tactics were categorized into four types: nonviolent discipline (like explaining why something was wrong), psychological aggression (including shouting, yelling, or screaming), corporal punishment or minor assault (such as spanking with a hand), and severe assault (like grabbing the neck and choking).
Participants indicated how often these things happened to them on a scale from “This never happened” to “More than 20 times.” After collecting the data, the researchers used statistical analyses to examine the relationships between the different types of parental discipline and the Dark Tetrad traits. They looked at correlations to see if there were general associations and regression analyses to determine if specific discipline tactics uniquely predicted each Dark Tetrad trait, even when considering factors like age and gender.
The study’s findings revealed significant positive correlations between all types of parental discipline tactics and each of the Dark Tetrad traits. This means that individuals who reported experiencing any of these discipline methods as children tended to score higher on measures of narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism in adulthood.
However, the regression analyses provided a more nuanced picture. When considering the unique contribution of each discipline tactic, psychological aggression emerged as a significant and unique predictor of both psychopathy and sadism. This suggests that experiencing parental psychological aggression in childhood is particularly linked to the development of psychopathic and sadistic traits in adulthood.
Severe assault, on the other hand, was found to be a unique and positive predictor of Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy. This indicates that experiencing severe physical violence from parents is specifically associated with higher levels of Machiavellianism, narcissism, and, to a lesser extent, psychopathy.
“One surprising aspect of our findings was the differential impact of various types of parental discipline tactics on dark personality traits,” Pineda told PsyPost. “While we expected psychological aggression to be associated with Machiavellianism, our results showed that severe physical aggression played a more significant role. This suggests that extreme parental behaviors may contribute differently to personality development, reinforcing the need for nuanced research on how specific adverse experiences shape different aspects of dark personality traits.”
Interestingly, nonviolent discipline and corporal punishment or minor assault did not significantly predict any of the Dark Tetrad traits when considered alongside the more severe forms of aggression. In essence, while all forms of harsh parenting showed some association with Dark Tetrad traits, psychological aggression and severe assault were the most impactful and uniquely related to specific traits within the Dark Tetrad.
“Our study highlights that childhood experiences, particularly exposure to severe parental discipline tactics, can play a role in shaping dark personality traits,” Pineda explained. “Psychological aggression was found to be particularly linked to psychopathy and sadism, while severe physical assault was associated with Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy. These findings emphasize the importance of fostering supportive and non-violent parenting environments, as early-life adversities can leave lasting imprints on personality development and social behavior.”
But the study, like all research, has some limitations.
“First, our study is cross-sectional, meaning that we cannot establish causality between childhood experiences and dark personality traits—longitudinal studies would be necessary to confirm these relationships over time,” Pineda noted. “Additionally, we relied on retrospective self-reports, which may be subject to memory biases. Finally, while our sample was relatively diverse, future research should include broader demographic and cultural representations to ensure generalizability.”
Looking ahead, future research could explore how genetic predispositions, cultural factors, and broader social environments interact with parental discipline to shape personality development. Researchers could also investigate how factors like social support, personal resilience, or therapeutic interventions might buffer the negative effects of adverse childhood experiences and prevent the development of these undesirable personality traits.
“We aim to further investigate the mechanisms linking childhood experiences to dark personality traits, particularly through longitudinal designs that track personality development over time,” Pineda said. “Additionally, we are interested in exploring potential protective factors—such as social support, resilience, or therapeutic interventions—that might buffer the negative effects of adverse childhood environments. Ultimately, our goal is to contribute to the development of prevention and intervention strategies that promote healthier personality development.”
“Our study underscores the need for early interventions in families where psychological or physical aggression is present. Addressing negative parenting practices at an early stage may help prevent the development of maladaptive personality traits that could later manifest in antisocial behaviors. We hope that this research encourages further studies on the role of early-life experiences in shaping personality and social functioning.”
The study, “Dark childhood, dark personality: Relations between experiences of child abuse and dark tetrad traits,” was authored by Manuel Galán, David Pineda, Pilar Rico-Bordera, Jose A. Piqueras, and Peter Muris.
