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A sweeping new analysis has confirmed what scientists have long suspected: regular exercise improves cognitive function—not just in healthy adults, but across all age groups and health statuses. Drawing on data from more than 2,700 clinical trials, this umbrella review found that physical activity leads to small-to-moderate improvements in memory, executive function, and overall thinking ability. The study, published in the British Journal of Sports Medicine, is the most comprehensive of its kind to date and provides strong support for exercise as a broadly accessible tool to enhance brain health.
The researchers launched this project to address growing questions about how exercise impacts mental performance, especially in different populations. While hundreds of studies have explored the relationship between physical activity and cognitive health, many were limited to specific groups—such as children, older adults, or people with conditions like dementia or depression.
Past reviews often focused narrowly on certain types of exercise, such as aerobic activity or yoga, and sometimes yielded mixed or contradictory results. The authors of the current study wanted to create a more complete picture by pulling together and reanalyzing the findings of all high-quality systematic reviews and meta-analyses on the topic, regardless of population or exercise type.
“There’s been an explosion of research in recent years looking at how exercise affects the brain, but most studies focus on a single age group or population,” said lead author Ben Singh, a research fellow in health at the University of South Australia. “We wanted to provide a comprehensive synthesis of all available evidence to understand whether exercise can enhance cognitive function, memory, and executive skills across all ages and health statuses — from children to older adults, and from healthy individuals to those with clinical conditions like ADHD or dementia.”
The team conducted what’s known as an umbrella review—essentially a review of reviews. They searched 11 major databases and identified 133 systematic reviews that met their criteria. Together, these reviews covered 2,724 individual randomized controlled trials and included data from over 258,000 participants. The age range of participants spanned from about 7 to 89 years old, and the populations represented included healthy individuals, people with cognitive impairments, and those living with clinical conditions such as depression, stroke, or neurological disorders.
The types of exercise interventions were broad and diverse. Most reviews examined mixed-mode exercise programs, which combine various forms of activity, but others focused specifically on aerobic workouts, resistance training, dance, yoga, Tai Chi, or so-called exergames—video games that require physical movement. To be included, each intervention had to last at least four weeks, and more than 75% of the component trials in each review had to focus solely on exercise (not combined with other treatments).
The researchers evaluated the effects of exercise on three cognitive domains: general cognition (overall thinking and mental processing), memory, and executive function (skills like attention, planning, and self-control). They used a statistical method to calculate standardized mean differences, which allow comparison of results across different tests and studies. They also examined whether factors like age, exercise intensity, and intervention duration influenced outcomes.
The results were consistent and encouraging. Exercise had a small-to-moderate positive effect on general cognitio, memory, and executive function. Subgroup analyses revealed some interesting nuances. For example, children and adolescents showed greater improvements in memory and executive function than adults or older adults. People with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) experienced the largest gains in executive function.
“The strongest improvements in executive function were seen in individuals with ADHD, suggesting that exercise could be a particularly valuable intervention for improving focus and self-control in this group,” Singh told PsyPost.
The mode and duration of exercise also mattered. Interventions involving exergames produced the largest improvements in general cognition and memory. These games combine physical movement with mental challenges, such as following sequences, solving puzzles, or reacting to changing stimuli. Mind-body exercises like yoga and Tai Chi were especially effective for boosting memory, possibly because they demand both physical coordination and mental focus.
“We were surprised to find that activities like yoga and dance — which blend physical movement with mental focus, rhythm, and coordination — were among the most effective for improving both memory and overall cognitive function,” Singh said.
Interestingly, the largest cognitive benefits occurred in interventions that lasted just one to three months. This may reflect better adherence, novelty effects, or higher-quality comparisons to control groups in short-term studies.
“Shorter interventions often produced greater cognitive benefits than longer ones,” Singh told PsyPost. “That might be due to higher motivation or better adherence in the short term.”
The intensity of exercise appeared to have less impact on outcomes. Low- and moderate-intensity activities were just as effective—if not more so—than high-intensity workouts. This suggests that cognitive benefits can be achieved through relatively gentle forms of movement, which is especially relevant for populations with physical limitations or those new to exercise. These findings also reinforce the idea that the mental engagement required by some low-intensity exercises may play a key role in improving brain function, independent of physical exertion.
“Even light or moderate exercise can meaningfully improve brain function — including memory, focus, and decision-making — and these benefits apply to everyone,” Singh explained. “You don’t have to be an athlete or do intense workouts to experience cognitive gains. Activities like walking, yoga, dance, or even active video games can boost mental sharpness.”
Despite the overall positive findings, the study did identify some limitations. A large portion of the included systematic reviews were rated as low or critically low in quality, mostly because they failed to report key details such as funding sources or reasons for excluding certain studies. However, the research team conducted multiple sensitivity analyses and found that removing low-quality reviews did not significantly change the direction or significance of the results.
Another limitation was the variety of cognitive tests used across studies. Some tools, such as the Mini-Mental State Examination or the Montreal Cognitive Assessment, are designed to detect cognitive decline and may not be sensitive enough to detect subtle improvements in healthy individuals.
“The quality of the underlying reviews was mixed, with many rated as low in methodological quality,” Singh noted. “That doesn’t necessarily mean the original trials were poor, but it does highlight a need for more rigorously conducted reviews going forward. Also, some cognitive tests used in studies aren’t sensitive enough to detect subtle improvements in healthy adults, which may underestimate exercise’s full impact.”
The authors also noted a gap in the literature regarding healthy middle-aged adults. Most studies focused on children, older adults, or clinical populations, leaving a relative lack of data on whether exercise can enhance cognition in people in their 30s, 40s, or 50s. Future research should address this gap using more sensitive cognitive assessments that can detect small changes in mental performance.
Another question raised by the findings is whether the cognitive benefits of exercise come mainly from the physical activity itself or from the mental engagement involved in certain types of exercise. Activities like dance, yoga, and exergaming not only get the body moving but also challenge the brain through memory, coordination, and focus. Disentangling these elements in future studies could help identify the most effective forms of exercise for specific cognitive goals.
“We’re keen to dig deeper into what types of exercise work best for different people — for example, does dance help more with memory in older adults, or do active video games boost focus in kids?” Singh explained. “We also want to investigate how much of the benefit comes from the physical activity itself versus the cognitive engagement involved in activities like yoga or exergaming.”
“One important takeaway is that exercise is an accessible, non-pharmacological way to support brain health. With aging populations and rising mental health concerns, encouraging physical activity may be one of the most scalable tools we have to preserve and improve cognitive functioning across society.”
The study, “Effectiveness of exercise for improving cognition, memory and executive function: a systematic umbrella review and meta-meta-analysis,” was authored by Ben Singh, Hunter Bennett, Aaron Miatke, Dorothea Dumuid, Rachel Curtis, Ty Ferguson, Jacinta Brinsley, Kimberley Szeto, Jasmine M. Petersen, Claire Gough, Emily Eglitis, Catherine E.M. Simpson, Christina L. Ekegren, Ashleigh E. Smith, Kirk I. Erickson, and Carol Maher.
