Recent research published in the journal Psychology, Crime & Law suggests that specific deep-seated psychological patterns, particularly feelings of entitlement and a desire to punish others, are linked to an interest in secretly removing a condom during sex. The findings provide evidence that targeted mental health interventions might help reduce this specific form of sexual violence by addressing dysfunctional ways of thinking.
Non-consensual condom removal, commonly known as stealthing, happens when a person secretly takes off or damages a condom before or during sex without their partner’s knowledge or consent. Because condom use symbolizes a mutual agreement regarding sexual safety, secretly altering that agreement transforms a consensual sexual encounter into an act of sexual violence.
“It not only violates consent but also exposes victims to sexually transmitted infections, unwanted pregnancies and lasting emotional harm,” said Andrew Allen, a clinical psychologist, member of the Sexual Violence Research and Prevention Unit, and director of the Psychology Clinic at the University of the Sunshine Coast. The emotional fallout for victims often includes diminished sexual assertiveness and profound feelings of betrayal.
To better understand the cognitive drivers behind this behavior, scientists have begun examining the underlying psychological traits of those who perpetrate it. “Further studies are vital because relatively little is known about the psychological factors behind this crime,” Allen said.
The authors of the primary study wanted to explore how stealthing relates to early maladaptive schemas. These schemas are deeply ingrained patterns of thinking and feeling that usually develop in childhood as a result of unmet emotional needs. By acting as a lens through which individuals interpret the world, these ingrained beliefs can lead to manipulative or harmful interpersonal behaviors later in life.
Prior to investigating extreme behaviors like stealthing, scientists often look at broader categories of sexual coercion, such as condom use resistance. Condom use resistance involves a range of tactics, from verbal persuasion to deception, used to avoid wearing a condom during sex. While not all of these tactics are inherently violent, some men use aggressive or manipulative strategies that ignore a partner’s boundaries. The scientists designed their study to see how deeply rooted psychological schemas overlap with both general condom use resistance and the specific act of stealthing.
In the most recent study, scientists recruited 106 men residing in Australia to participate in a 20-minute online survey. The participants were between the ages of 19 and 68, with the majority identifying as heterosexual and currently in monogamous relationships. To ensure the reliability of the data, the researchers included specific attention checks and removed incomplete responses. The survey assessed the participants on 20 different early maladaptive schemas using a widely recognized psychological questionnaire.
The men also answered questions about their past use of tactics to avoid wearing condoms. To gauge the participants’ attitudes toward stealthing without putting them in legal jeopardy, the researchers presented three hypothetical scenarios involving non-consensual condom removal. One scenario involved simply taking the condom off, another involved breaking it intentionally, and the third involved continuing to have sex after the condom accidentally slipped off. The participants then rated their level of sexual arousal in response to these scenarios, as well as their intent to engage in such acts.
The findings indicated that men who possessed an entitlement or grandiosity schema were highly responsive to the stealthing scenarios. “The first was a sense of entitlement or grandiosity, in other words believing that rules don’t apply to you; and men who showed this pattern were more than three times more likely to report arousal and intent to engage in stealthing,” Allen said. The results suggest that feelings of superiority can lead individuals to justify taking sexual access regardless of their partner’s autonomy.
Additionally, the researchers observed a link between stealthing arousal and another specific pattern of thinking. “The second was punitiveness, or the tendency to punish others for not complying with your wishes, which is associated with lacking empathy and being judgmental,” Allen said.
In the context of sexual encounters, this might manifest as a desire to secretly remove a condom as a form of covert retaliation against a partner. “We anticipated the entitlement finding but the role of punitiveness, suggesting that some men may be drawn to [non-consensual condom removal] as a form of retaliation against a partner, has not been documented previously,” Allen noted.
The study also found that men who felt highly confident in their ability to negotiate and apply condoms properly tended to report less arousal toward the stealthing scenarios. “On the flip side, the study found that men with greater confidence in condom use were less likely to commit [non-consensual condom removal],” Allen said. “This suggests that practical sexual health skills may lower the risk factors and increase safety for partners.” Interventions focusing on healthy sexual communication could help counteract the negative influence of maladaptive schemas.
These findings build upon another recent study published in the journal Psychology & Sexuality, conducted by the same authors in collaboration with the Cairnmillar Institute in Victoria. In that research, scientists investigated how stealthing relates to the dark triad of personality traits, which includes narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Machiavellianism involves a manipulative and cynical worldview, while narcissism is characterized by grandiosity and self-importance. Psychopathy involves a lack of empathy, high impulsivity, and callous behavior toward others.
The researchers surveyed 221 men to see if these specific personality traits predicted an inclination toward non-consensual condom removal. Similar to the newer study, the participants read hypothetical stealthing scenarios and answered questions about their arousal, past behaviors, and future intentions. “We previously found links between narcissism, psychopathy and stealthing,” Allen said.
Psychopathy emerged as the strongest predictor of intending to secretly remove a condom. The scientists noted that the impulsivity and lack of concern for others associated with psychopathy align closely with the coercive nature of stealthing. Narcissism also played a significant role in predicting these intentions, which is consistent with the newer study’s findings regarding entitlement. “Basically, all of these traits reinforce a consistent picture of self-serving beliefs and disregard for a partner’s autonomy increasing the risk of offending,” Allen said.
A related study published in Personality and Individual Differences examined the broader concept of sexual deception, which encompasses various ways people lie to secure sexual encounters. A team of scientists surveyed 1,769 adults, including a mix of men, women, and non-binary individuals, about their past use of deceptive tactics. The participants answered questions regarding whether they had ever lied about their age, income, sexually transmitted infection status, or the number of past sexual partners.
The researchers found that men and women engaged in sexual deception at similar overall rates, but the specific topics they lied about tended to differ. Men were more likely to mislead potential partners about their wealth, occupation, and physical appearance. Both men and women frequently lied about their total number of past sexual partners, while a concerning percentage admitted to lying about having been tested for sexually transmitted infections.
The study also revealed that participants belonging to sexual minority groups sometimes lied about their sexual orientation, likely as a safety measure to avoid stigma or prejudice. Much like the studies on stealthing, this broader research on sexual deception identified specific personality traits linked to manipulative behavior. Individuals with high levels of sexual narcissism and compulsive sexual behavior were more likely to use deceptive tactics to obtain sex. The authors suggest that people with intense sexual urges might feel that obtaining sex justifies the use of deception.
While these studies offer detailed insights into the psychological mechanisms behind sexual deception and stealthing, there are some limitations to consider. The reliance on self-reported online surveys means that some participants might not have answered completely honestly. This is particularly relevant when asking individuals about behaviors that are highly stigmatized or illegal, which might lead people to underreport their true actions or intentions. In addition, online data collection carries an inherent risk of participant misrepresentation, even when attention checks are utilized.
The cross-sectional design of these studies also means that scientists can only observe associations at a single point in time. This prevents them from determining whether possessing a specific personality trait directly causes a person to engage in stealthing or sexual deception. The sample sizes in the primary stealthing studies were also relatively small, which tends to limit how broadly the findings can be applied to the general population. It remains possible that systemic differences existed in unmeasured variables that the surveys failed to capture.
Future research could benefit from using larger and more diverse groups of people over an extended period. Scientists suggest that tracking behaviors over time might help establish a more direct cause-and-effect relationship between ingrained personality schemas and sexual violence. Examining past instances of stealthing alongside deep-seated psychological beliefs could provide additional insights into the predictors of this behavior. Providing monetary incentives or shorter surveys might also help researchers recruit a wider variety of participants.
At the individual level, the current research indicates a need for clinical interventions that specifically target entitlement-related beliefs. “Psychological treatment programs could specifically address these two cognitive patterns, while community prevention efforts could include them in consent education and challenges to unhealthy gender norms,” Allen said. Addressing the broader cultural norms that enable sexual coercion will be necessary to support healthy relationships and long-term behavioral change.
The study, “The relationship between early maladaptive schemas and non-consensual condom removal in an Australian sample,” was authored by Andrew Allen, Tahlia Brown, and Jonathan Mason.
The study, “Investigating the relationship between non-consensual condom removal and the dark triad of personality,” was authored by Timothy S. P. Cousins, Andrew Allen, and Jonathan Mason.
The study, “Blatant sexual deception: Content, individual differences, and implications,” was authored by Flora Oswald, Devinder Khera, Kari A. Walton, and Cory L. Pedersen.
