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A new study published in Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience sheds light on how early exposure to family-related stressors, such as harsh parenting, family conflict, and unsafe neighborhoods, impacts brain development. Researchers found that children exposed to these threats showed distinct patterns of brain development between late childhood and adolescence. While prior theories suggested these changes might reflect accelerated brain development, this study indicates they may instead represent a blunting or slowing of specific developmental processes.
Childhood is a critical period for brain development, with the family environment playing a foundational role in shaping emotional and cognitive growth. Adverse experiences can have lasting impacts on mental health and well-being. However, the exact mechanisms by which these experiences influence brain development remain unclear.
“In recent years, a shift in thinking about adversity has taken place. Where the consequences of adversity were initially interpreted as damage, more recently, these consequences are seen as adaptations to the adverse environment,” said study author Sandra Thijssen, an assistant professor at the Behavioural Science Institute at Radboud University.
“These adaptations help the individual cope with the adversity but may seem unhelpful from the perspective of someone experiencing a safe and stress-free environment. For example, aggressive behavior may be helpful in a dangerous environment but is generally perceived as bad behavior and a negative consequence of early hardship.”
“Besides behavioral adaptations, there is research suggesting that children may adapt to early adversity by speeding up their development,” Thijssen explained. “A large body of literature exists on the acceleration of pubertal development, but there is also some work suggesting that the brain may mature faster in children experiencing early threat.”
“I am fascinated by the possibility that our bodies can flexibly adjust to our early environment to help us survive or cope with adversity. With this project, we wanted to find out if some earlier findings, interpreted as potential evidence for accelerated brain development and thus adaptation, really are examples of adaptation and not just evidence of neural damage.”
“Specifically, the outer layer of the brain, the cortex, has been shown to thin over development,” Thijssen continued. “Accelerated thinning can be interpreted as accelerated development, but could also be the consequence of neural damage. We wanted to tease apart these different interpretations by simultaneously examining cortical thickness and gray-white contrast, a proxy for myelination, which is one of the main causes of cortical thinning over development.”
The study was embedded in the Generation R project, a large-scale longitudinal cohort study based in Rotterdam, Netherlands. This extensive dataset allowed researchers to track brain development in 4,200 children through three waves of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans at ages 8, 10, and 14. These children were assessed for exposure to family-related threats during early childhood.
The researchers focused on the amygdala-medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) circuit, comprising the amygdala and specific regions of the medial prefrontal cortex, including the anterior cingulate cortex and the medial orbitofrontal cortex. This circuit plays a key role in emotion regulation and decision-making.
Thijssen and her colleagues observed that children exposed to harsh parenting or unsafe neighborhoods had smaller amygdala volumes across development. This finding was consistent at all time points (ages 8, 10, and 14), suggesting an early and lasting impact. Importantly, the smaller amygdala size was not linked to accelerated growth or structural changes over time, countering the theory that childhood stress speeds up amygdala development.
The anterior cingulate cortex, divided into caudal and rostral regions, displayed different patterns of development based on exposure to early stressors. Children from unsafe neighborhoods showed less developmental change in gray-white matter contrast in the rostral anterior cingulate cortex, which suggests a deceleration or blunting of normal maturation in this region.
On the other hand, high levels of family conflict were associated with faster cortical thinning in the caudal anterior cingulate cortex. However, this thinning was accompanied by less developmental change in gray-white matter contrast, a pattern inconsistent with the idea of accelerated maturation. Instead, these results suggest that early conflict may disrupt normal processes like myelination, which is essential for efficient communication between brain regions.
“Accelerated neurodevelopment has mostly been studied in the context of brain activation, specifically of the amygdala-mPFC circuit involved in emotion regulation,” Thijssen told PsyPost. “However, there is also evidence suggesting that the structure of the brain may develop faster in response to early stress or adversity. We indeed found evidence that specific forms of early threat were associated with increased cortical thinning in the anterior cingulate cortex from ages 8 to 14. However, for gray-white contrast, we found greater developmental change for individuals in safer rather than more threatening environments.”
“Our study, therefore, provides limited evidence for accelerated structural development of the amygdala-mPFC circuit in response to early threat. Further, it suggests that accelerated cortical thinning may not necessarily be evidence for accelerated development, as it does not go hand in hand with greater changes in gray-white contrast.”
Unlike the amygdala and anterior cingulate cortex, the medial orbitofrontal cortex did not show significant associations with family-related stressors. This region appeared unaffected by early-life threats within the scope of this study. This absence of findings may indicate that the medial orbitofrontal cortex is less sensitive to these types of early stressors, or that its developmental changes occur later or in response to different types of adversity.
The researchers also noted differences in how various stressors affected brain development. For instance, harsh parenting was more consistently associated with smaller amygdala volumes, while unsafe neighborhoods had a more pronounced effect on gray-white matter contrast in the anterior cingulate cortex. These variations suggest that the nature and proximity of the stressor—whether it is immediate, like parenting, or more distal, like neighborhood safety—may influence its impact on brain development.
“I was mostly surprised to find opposing results for thickness and gray-white contrast (more developmental change in thickness for unsafe environments vs. more developmental change in gray-white contrast for safer environments),” Thijssen said. “We are unsure what those results mean. These findings could suggest that accelerated cortical thinning in response to early threat does not represent accelerated cortical development, or could imply that in different environments, different developmental processes are favored (e.g., pruning in threatening environments, myelination in safer environments).”
To ensure robust results, the researchers controlled for various factors that might confound the relationship between adversity and brain development. These included socioeconomic status, maternal education, prenatal exposures, and family income. They also corrected for potential biases related to MRI quality and participant movement during scans. However, as with all research, there are some caveats.
“There hasn’t been much research on the association between cortical thickness and gray-white contrast,” Thijssen noted. “We therefore do not know for certain if greater changes in cortical thickness should go hand in hand with greater changes in gray-white contrast.”
“Moreover, the effect sizes of our findings are small. Because this study was conducted in a large sample, even small effects can become significant. Some of the associations were only significant when stricter adjustment for motion was applied, which was not part of the original analysis plan. Further, we did not associate the neural findings to behavior, and therefore do not know if these associations with brain development translate to, for example, emotion regulation.”
The study, “Early childhood family threat and longitudinal amygdala-mPFC circuit development: Examining cortical thickness and gray matter-white matter contrast,” was authored by Sandra Thijssen, Yllza Xerxa, Linn B. Norbom, Maaike Cima, Henning Tiemeier, Christian K. Tamnes, and Ryan L. Muetzel.
