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A meta-analysis of studies exploring the relationship between physical activity and cognitive performance found a small positive association between the two. The strongest effects were observed for moderate-to-vigorous outdoor physical activity. The paper was published in the Psychological Bulletin.
Research indicates that physical activity can benefit cognitive performance across the lifespan. Regular exercise improves blood flow to the brain, supporting the delivery of oxygen and nutrients essential for brain function. It also stimulates the release of neurotrophic factors such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which promote neuronal growth and connectivity. Both aerobic and resistance training have been linked to improvements in memory, attention, and executive functioning.
In children, physical activity tends to be associated with better academic achievement and concentration. Among adults, it may help slow age-related cognitive decline and reduce the risk of neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease. Acute bouts of exercise can temporarily enhance mood and mental clarity. These cognitive benefits are thought to result from a combination of biological and psychological mechanisms. Exercise can also reduce stress and improve sleep, both of which support cognitive functioning.
Lead author Myrto F. Mavilidi and colleagues aimed to integrate findings from existing studies on the link between physical activity and cognition, while also examining how this relationship might depend on contextual factors such as the physical and social environment, delivery mode (e.g., face-to-face, remote, virtual reality), delivery style, and life domain. They also distinguished between the effects of single, acute bouts of activity and regular, long-term physical activity.
The researchers searched ERIC (ProQuest), APA PsycInfo, PubMed, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus for studies presenting original data on physical activity interventions. They focused on experimental designs involving random assignment or randomized crossover designs, with cognitive outcomes including executive functioning, memory, attention, or intelligence.
They examined exercise intensity, duration, type, and cognitive demand (for example, repetitive motor exercises versus complex sports or skill-based activities). They also considered participant age, adherence to the intervention, study design, and any special participant characteristics.
The initial search yielded 16,515 records. After screening, 239 studies met inclusion criteria for the meta-analysis. These studies were published between 1989 and 2023, involved a total of 48,625 participants, and covered a mean age range from 4 to 85 years.
Results showed that regular physical activity had a small positive effect on cognition. Studies examining single bouts of physical activity also found small positive effects. These effects did not appear to vary substantially by physical or social environment, or by life domain in which the activity took place.
For acute exercise studies, light, moderate, and moderate-to-vigorous intensity activities all produced small positive effects, whereas vigorous or near-maximal activity showed negligible effects. Regarding activity type, the largest effects in chronic interventions were observed for holistic movement practices and martial arts, followed by motor–cognitive activities such as sports games—both of which tend to be more cognitively demanding. Outdoor activities also tended to yield stronger effects.
“The current review found that several facets of the physical activity context, including physical and social environment, domain, and delivery mode do not moderate the effects of physical activity on cognition individually. Instead, the outdoor physical environment seems to amplify the beneficial effect of physical activity of specific doses and features. Our findings show promise that providing people of all ages with opportunities to be active in natural outdoor environments can be conducive to enhanced cognitive functioning,” the study authors concluded.
The study sheds light on the effects of physical activity on cognition. However, study authors note that results were substantially influenced by individual studies reporting much stronger results compared to other studies. They note that effects would be much smaller if only 6 studies with strong results were removed from the dataset.
The paper, “How Physical Activity Context Relates to Cognition Across the Lifespan: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” was authored by Myrto F. Mavilidi, Spyridoula Vazou, David R. Lubans, Katie Robinson, Andrew J. Woods, Valentin Benzing, Sofia Anzeneder, Katherine B. Owen, Celia Álvarez-Bueno, Levi Wade, Jade Burley, George Thomas, Anthony D. Okely, and Caterina Pesce.