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New research published in the Sociology of Sport Journal reveals that most U.S. adults believe sports bring people from different racial and ethnic backgrounds together more than they divide them. This optimistic view is especially common among those who have participated in racially diverse athletic settings and believe their experiences helped them better understand people of other races. However, the study also suggests that these beliefs may reflect widely shared cultural narratives rather than the lived realities of all participants.
“We were interested in studying general beliefs about how sports are thought to contribute to racial/ethnic integration in society because, on the one hand, sports are commonly recognized as being an influential social force in society and are frequently held up as models of meritocracy and the source of many memorable—and usually quite positive—experiences and even social changes,” said study author Chris Knoester, a professor of sociology at The Ohio State University.
“For example, Jackie Robinson’s entry into baseball is continually recounted as an important marker of progress in this country’s story of race relations and, more recently, the increased numbers and levels of success of Black quarterbacks have been recognized as meaningful.”
“Yet, on the other hand, critical sport scholars and followers have long emphasized that sports have traditionally served as a means to reinforce and justify racial/ethnic inequalities, also. But, these problems are often minimized or dismissed. Relatedly, further complicating things, beliefs about potentially positive functions of sport for racial/ethnic integration may not translate into actions or even support for racial/ethnic diversity, equity, and inclusion in sports and society.”
“So, especially in light of recent divisions along racial/ethnic lines in sports and society, we wanted to first assess current public opinion among U.S. adults about the extent to which they thought that sports bring people together, across racial/ethnic lines,” Knoester explained.
“Moreover, we were curious about the extent to which people had racial/ethnically segregated and integrated experiences when they played sports, how they viewed such experiences, and whether or not these histories and dynamics predicted their more general views about sports bringing people together across racial/ethnic lines.”
“Indeed, many sports, sports teams, communities, and schools continue to be substantially segregated by race/ethnicity. Yet, sports interactions and competitions can be unusual and influential means for interracial contact. Frequent team collaborations and fostered familiarity and respect among competitors may enhance racial/ethnic relations and boost views about the positive effects that sports may offer for racial/ethnic integration.”
“In fact, both of us felt these patterns of influence throughout our personal athletic histories,” Knoester continued. “Still, interracial sports interactions may be negative, also. Overall, though, sports may offer some measure of unique racial/ethnic equality and bonding that is built into the rules of sport and expectations for team collaborations and performances.”
To explore these questions, the researchers analyzed data from the National Sports and Society Survey, a nationally representative study of 3,993 U.S. adults conducted between 2018 and 2019. Participants answered a variety of questions about their past sports participation, including the racial makeup of their athletic environments during childhood and the previous year. They were also asked to evaluate whether their sports experiences had affected their understanding of people from other racial or ethnic backgrounds, and whether they believed sports bring people from different backgrounds together more than they divide them.
The researchers used logistic regression analyses to investigate the connections between participants’ personal experiences, their perceptions of those experiences, and their broader beliefs about the role of sports in promoting racial integration. They controlled for a range of demographic and ideological variables, including political affiliation, education, and beliefs about racial discrimination in society.
The results showed that 90% of respondents agreed—either strongly or somewhat—that sports bring people of different racial and ethnic backgrounds together. Only 10% disagreed, and a small fraction reported uncertainty. When asked about their personal experiences, more than half said their athletic involvement had positively shaped their understanding of other racial and ethnic groups. Around 40% reported no effect, while only 3% described the effect as negative.
These attitudes were not formed in a vacuum. People who had played sports in racially integrated environments were more likely to believe that sports promote racial harmony. In contrast, those who had not played organized sports or had only participated in racially homogenous settings were less likely to hold this belief. Notably, people who reported having positive experiences with racial diversity in sports were also more likely to say those experiences influenced their general beliefs about race relations in society.
“Persons who played organized sports in racial/ethnically integrated settings while growing up were more likely than those who did not play organized sports or who only played with members of their own racial/ethnic group all or almost all of the time, to believe that sports bring people together across racial/ethnic lines,” Knoester told PsyPost. “Also, similar patterns existed based on whether or not adults played a sport(s) regularly over the past year and, if so, with whom.
“Furthermore, those who played organized sports in racial/ethnically integrated settings while growing up were more likely than those who did not play organized sports or who only played with members of their own racial/ethnic group all or almost all of the time, to report that their athletic experience had a positive effect on their understanding of people of other races and backgrounds. The same patterns existed based on whether or not adults reported playing a sport regularly in the past year in racial/ethnically integrated settings.”
But not all contact across racial lines led to optimism. Participants who reported mistreatment based on their race or ethnicity in sports contexts were much less likely to see sports as a unifying force. This suggests that while exposure to racial diversity can foster positive attitudes, the quality of those interactions matters greatly. Interracial contact that involves discrimination or exclusion may reinforce negative views rather than reduce them.
“At least at first glance, the general story that emerges from our research seems quite positive: sports are thought to bring people together and personal sports-related histories frequently lead to beliefs that one gained important knowledge and insights about people from different races and backgrounds because of one’s sports-related interactions,” Knoester said. “This might be seen as great to hear, because of the prominence and pervasiveness of sports in society! Moreover, interracial sports interactions seem to be particularly influential in enabling these processes. So, racial/ethnic diversity, equity, and inclusion apparently lead to quite positive effects, on average.”
“Yet, it is important to remember that we essentially focused upon people’s beliefs and attitudes, in the present study. Feelings of connectedness or enhanced understandings do not necessarily lead to more common, interactive, and meaningful relationships; antiracist actions; or even expressed levels of support for people from different racial/ethnic groups. Respondents also identified sports-related racial/ethnic mistreatment they experienced in their lives and such identifications were negatively associated with beliefs about the ability of sports to bring people together across racial/ethnic lines and increased the likelihood that one would recognize sports as having negative effects for their understandings of people from different races and backgrounds. So, it is also essential to remember that sports offer some experiences of racial/ethnic prejudice and discrimination, too.”
Like all research, the study has some limitations. The survey relied on self-reported experiences and beliefs, which may be influenced by social desirability or cultural expectations. The sample also skewed toward White, female, and college-educated respondents, which may limit the generalizability of the findings.
“Poor recall and a lack of representation from some groups of people might have compromised our results, to some extent,” Knoester noted. “We were also unable to gather in-depth information from respondents about their experiences or segment out how different forms of sports-related experiences may have shaped adults’ views and experiences. It may be that participation, spectatorship, and conversational interactions offer different effects, for example.”
“Also, in-depth interviews could be a valuable source of information and could add much better context to why people feel the way that they do about the relationships between sports and racial/ethnic relations. Future research should seek to build upon our research and address these shortcomings.”
“Still, our study suggests that, at minimum, sports seem to encourage people to develop warmer feelings—or at least believe that others do—toward people of different races and backgrounds,” Knoester explained. “Therefore, sports may continue to work to bring people together and nurture positive affect if they are structured in such a way that they might do so, emphasizing equality and respect and the value of positive interracial interactions.”
“But, we should continue to be mindful that there are myriad racial/ethnic inequalities in sports and society that persist and sports can also, and frequently do, perpetuate more negative outcomes that are linked to race/ethnicity, as well. Consequently, sports deserve careful scrutiny and attention if they are to contribute more universally positive effects to society.”
The study, “Does Sport Bring Different Racial/Ethnic Groups Together? Examining U.S. Adults’ Beliefs and the Impact of Youth and Adult Sport Experiences,” was authored by Mariah K. Warner and Chris Knoester.
