Experiencing a psychological phenomenon known as temporal disintegration during or shortly after a collective trauma is associated with higher levels of distress both in the immediate aftermath and over time, according to new research published in Clinical Psychological Science. The findings suggest that the acute temporal distortions experienced during a trauma are an important contributor to future expectations and fears.
Traumatic experiences can profoundly alter an individual’s understanding of the world and trigger various cognitive and emotional processes to cope with the trauma. These experiences can also distort our perception of time.
During and immediately after a traumatic event, individuals may perceive time as slowing down or stopping, focusing only on the present moment with little awareness of the past and future. This distortion of time, called temporal disintegration, can isolate people in a stressful moment and disrupt the linear flow of time that weaves our life story together, affecting personal identity.
Temporal disintegration has been linked to long-term psychological adjustment following exposure to disasters. It can make individuals fixated on past negative events, leading to diminished well-being and increased distress over time. However, there is a lack of information about how trauma-related distortions in perceived time may be associated with our perceptions of the future, creating a gap in understanding the lasting impacts of temporal disintegration.
The corresponding author of the new study, E. Alison Holman (a professor of nursing, professor of psychological science, and associate dean at the Sue & Bill Gross School of Nursing), told PsyPost she has been “studying how stress/trauma are linked to our experience of time passing.”
The researchers hypothesized that temporal disintegration, caused by trauma, may influence individuals’ views of the future by filtering them through the lens of a painful past. Distortions in perceived time and related distress may color future expectations, leading to fear that similar negative events will occur in the future.
Previous studies indirectly support this hypothesis, showing that individuals who focus more on negative parts of their pasts are more fearful, anxious, and perceive greater risk of victimization. Studies on stress responses to collective traumas also suggest a link between distress and increased worry about future negative events.
To test their theoretical model, the researchers conducted two studies. The first study involved collecting cross-sectional data from students in the aftermath of a university shooting. One week after the incident, an anonymous online survey was sent to 40,339 undergraduate and graduate students, with a participation rate of approximately 18%. The final sample for analysis consisted of 6,516 participants.
To measure temporal disintegration related to the shooting event, participants were asked to what extent they experienced specific reactions during the lockdown. These reactions included feeling as though time had stopped, nothing was real, they were in slow motion, they had no future, they were unsure about time or day, and they had difficulty remembering events.
The second study utilized an existing longitudinal dataset from a multiwave study that tracked psychological responses to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. The dataset was obtained from Knowledge Networks (KN), a web-based survey research company that created a nationally representative panel of American adults using stratified random digit dialing telephone sampling.
The original study sample consisted of 2,729 participants, randomly drawn from the KN panel. Approximately 2 months after the 9/11 attacks, a second survey was conducted with a random sample of 1,069 panelists who resided outside New York City. Temporal disintegration related to the 9/11 attacks was assessed approximately during the second survey using the same six items from Study 1. The participants also completed various follow-up assessments 12 months and 24 months later.
Across both studies, the researchers found consistent evidence that temporal disintegration experienced during or shortly after a collective trauma was associated with increased distress responses. This distress, in turn, was linked to heightened fear of future similar events. These findings suggest that temporal disintegration plays a role in shaping how people perceive and expect the future, even up to 2 years after the trauma.
The findings provide evidence “that our past experiences can help to shape how we see the future, including how we experience fear about the future,” Holman told PsyPost. “Being aware of this could help people know to reflect on how their fears about the future may be linked to past experiences, and that these fears may not necessarily be based on real present circumstances. This could also demystify people’s views of the future.”
Holman added that she was “delighted” that the cross-sectional findings from Study 1 were replicated in Study 2, which used a longitudinal design. “I was really happy to see that,” she remarked.
The researchers also found that individuals with a history of prior adversity were more susceptible to experiencing temporal disintegration and the subsequent distress and fear. This suggests that prior exposure to adversity may increase vulnerability to these detrimental psychological responses over time.
The study highlights the importance of considering the role of time perception in trauma research and suggests the need for further exploration in this area.
“Cultivating our knowledge of antecedent and mitigating factors for temporal disintegration may strengthen our ability to effectively prevent this deleterious response pattern and buffer individuals against its long-term consequences,” Holman said. “We also need to understand the mechanisms underlying the link between trauma exposures and temporal disintegration — the how and why of it remains unknown.”
The study, “Do Past Events Sow Future Fears? Temporal Disintegration, Distress, and Fear of the Future Following Collective Trauma,” was authored by Emma L. Grisham, Nickolas M. Jones, Roxane Cohen Silver, and E. Alison Holman.