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New research published in Psychological Reports suggests that unpredictable early life experiences can shape how people relate to God, potentially influencing their ability to experience divine forgiveness and engage in religious coping. The findings indicate that individuals who grow up in more unstable environments are more likely to develop insecure attachments to God, which in turn may reduce their feelings of being forgiven by God and hinder how they use their faith to cope with life’s challenges.
The research is grounded in the idea that people’s early experiences, particularly the stability or unpredictability of their environments, play a major role in shaping emotional development and attachment styles. Past studies have shown that unpredictable childhoods can lead to insecure attachments to caregivers and romantic partners. This new work extends those insights to religious life, exploring whether attachment to God follows a similar pattern. The researchers also examined whether these attachments relate to how people perceive divine forgiveness and use religious practices to cope with stress.
To investigate these questions, the researchers conducted two studies involving college students who believed in a higher power. The first study included 441 participants and focused on whether childhood unpredictability was related to insecure attachment to God, and whether that attachment was in turn linked to perceived divine forgiveness. Participants completed questionnaires that measured their early experiences, how they relate to God, their sense of divine forgiveness, and their general religiosity.
The study used a statistical method called path analysis to examine these connections. The results showed that people who experienced more unpredictability during childhood tended to be more avoidantly attached to God. In other words, they were more likely to see God as distant or impersonal and to feel emotionally removed from a relationship with God. This avoidant attachment was then associated with lower levels of perceived divine forgiveness. The researchers found that avoidant attachment fully explained the link between childhood unpredictability and reduced feelings of divine forgiveness. Anxious attachment, which involves fear of abandonment and a desire for closeness, was also related to divine forgiveness, but it did not significantly explain the impact of childhood unpredictability.
In the second study, the researchers expanded their analysis to include religious coping—the ways in which people turn to their faith to manage stress. This study involved 417 college students who, like in the first study, believed in a higher power. In addition to the measures used in the first study, this group also completed a questionnaire that assessed both positive and negative religious coping behaviors. Positive coping included practices like seeking comfort from God or praying, while negative coping included feeling punished or abandoned by God.
The findings largely confirmed the patterns from the first study. Individuals who reported more unpredictability in their childhoods were again more likely to report avoidant attachment to God, which was associated with less perceived divine forgiveness. This lower sense of forgiveness, in turn, was linked to reduced engagement in positive religious coping strategies. Anxious attachment was also associated with divine forgiveness, but in a more complex way. While anxious attachment was positively related to both divine forgiveness and positive coping, the researchers noted this may be due to statistical suppression effects—where controlling for one form of attachment changes the apparent direction of associations for the other.
Interestingly, the researchers also found that the relationship between avoidant attachment and outcomes like forgiveness and coping was not always linear. People who were either very low or very high in avoidant attachment tended to show lower levels of anxious attachment and were more likely to engage in positive religious coping. This finding suggests that people who are moderately avoidant in their relationship with God may be at greater risk of negative religious experiences than those at either extreme.
While the results for positive coping were clear, the connection between childhood unpredictability and negative religious coping was less consistent. Although the data suggested that insecure attachment and reduced divine forgiveness might explain why people from unpredictable backgrounds engage in more negative religious coping, this effect became weaker after accounting for other variables like religiosity and demographic characteristics.
Together, these studies suggest that early life experiences—specifically how unpredictable or unstable one’s upbringing was—can influence how people relate to God later in life. These relationships, in turn, appear to shape whether people feel forgiven by God and how they draw upon their faith in times of stress. The researchers argue that these findings support using attachment theory as a framework for understanding religious belief and practice. Just as people’s relationships with their parents can shape how they relate to others in adulthood, their experiences of care and consistency (or the lack thereof) can shape how they relate to a divine figure.
One of the more novel contributions of this research is the idea that divine forgiveness may act as a psychological bridge between early experiences, attachment to God, and the way people use religion to cope. While divine forgiveness is a central theme in many religious traditions, it has received relatively little attention in psychological research. The findings here suggest that feeling forgiven by God may be an important part of how religion contributes to well-being.
Despite the insights provided, the authors acknowledge several limitations. Most participants were White, Christian women attending college, which limits how broadly the findings can be applied. Gender, in particular, has been shown to influence both attachment patterns and religious behaviors, meaning the results might look different in a more balanced or diverse sample. The researchers also note that they did not collect information about participants’ current socioeconomic status, which might buffer or amplify the effects of childhood unpredictability.
Another limitation is that the studies were cross-sectional, meaning all data were collected at one point in time. As a result, the researchers cannot say with certainty whether childhood unpredictability causes insecure attachment to God or whether other factors might explain the associations. Longitudinal research, which follows people over time, would be better suited to establishing whether early experiences directly shape these religious psychological processes.
Finally, the researchers stress that other factors not measured in the current studies may also play a role. For example, a person’s image of God—whether they see God as kind or harsh—could influence how they experience divine forgiveness and how they cope. Engagement in religious communities and exposure to religious teachings during childhood might also shape how people view and relate to God.
The study, “Childhood Unpredictability is Associated With Religious Coping Through Attachment to God and Divine Forgiveness,” was authored by Heather M. Maranges and Frank D. Fincham.
