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New research published in Translational Psychiatry suggests that older adults who perceive criticism from close family or friends are more likely to develop symptoms of depression over time. The findings come from a large 17-year study of adults aged 50 and older living in England, and show that even low levels of criticism can have negative effects—particularly for women.
The study aimed to investigate whether being on the receiving end of criticism from spouses, children, other close family members, or friends contributes to depression in later life. The researchers also explored whether these effects were different for men and women. They found that frequent or even occasional criticism predicted a higher risk of depression down the line, and that women were more vulnerable to these effects than men.
Depression is one of the most common mental health concerns in later life, and its consequences can be serious. Older adults with depression often experience more physical health problems, including higher risks for conditions like heart disease and stroke. Depression can also make it harder to manage other illnesses and contributes to social withdrawal, cognitive decline, and even higher mortality. Although treatments are available, they often don’t work for everyone, and many older adults experience repeated bouts of depression. That’s why identifying preventable risk factors is so important.
Social relationships are one area of concern. For older adults, shifting family dynamics and greater dependence on others can increase sensitivity to how they’re treated by the people around them. In particular, repeated or perceived criticism from people they are emotionally close to—such as a spouse, children, or friends—may wear away at self-esteem and mental health. Previous studies have shown links between criticism and depressive symptoms, but most of these studies were cross-sectional, meaning they could not determine whether criticism actually led to depression or whether people who are already depressed perceive more criticism.
To address these questions, the researchers used data from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing, a long-term project that has followed tens of thousands of people aged 50 and older in the United Kingdom since 2002. Participants complete interviews and questionnaires every two years. The researchers drew from nearly two decades of data from 2002 through 2019, creating four overlapping study groups based on who each participant reported having in their life: a spouse or partner, children, other close family members (such as siblings or grandchildren), and friends.
To measure depression, the researchers used a short version of a well-established scale that asks about common symptoms, such as feeling sad, having trouble sleeping, or losing interest in things. Participants who scored four or higher on this scale were considered to have clinically meaningful symptoms of depression. Importantly, only participants who were not depressed at the beginning of the study were included in the analyses.
Perceived criticism was measured at the start of each participant’s time in the study. They were asked, for example, “How much does your spouse criticize you?” or “How much do your friends criticize you?” with possible answers being “not at all,” “a little,” “some,” or “a lot.” These questions were asked separately for each relationship type—spouse, child, other family member, and friend.
Over the course of the study, between 23 and 25 percent of participants developed symptoms of depression, depending on which group they were in. Across all four relationship categories, participants who reported higher levels of criticism were more likely to experience these symptoms later on. In the case of spouses, those who reported “some” or “a lot” of criticism had a significantly higher risk, while those who reported “a little” did not. But when it came to criticism from children, other family, or friends, even a small amount of criticism was associated with a higher risk of depression.
The data also revealed a clear difference between men and women. Women were more likely than men to report depressive symptoms in response to perceived criticism across all categories. For instance, women who reported even a little criticism from a spouse, child, or friend were more likely to experience depression during the follow-up period. For men, only those who reported a lot of criticism seemed to be at increased risk.
These findings suggest that older women may be more sensitive to negative feedback in close relationships, or perhaps more affected by the emotional tone of those relationships overall. Previous research has suggested that women, on average, are more attuned to social and relational dynamics, and may be more likely to internalize negative interpersonal experiences. Other studies have also found that women are more vulnerable to the mental health effects of intimate partner violence, emotional abuse, or interpersonal discrimination, which could help explain the pattern seen here.
To make sure the results were robust, the researchers ran several additional analyses. For example, they checked whether the results held up when excluding people who became depressed within the first two years of the study, to account for the possibility that early signs of depression might have influenced how people perceived criticism. They also looked at participants who had all four types of relationships and considered cumulative effects, finding that the more types of people someone felt criticized by, the higher their risk of depression became.
But the study has limitations. The measurement of criticism was based on self-report, which means it reflects participants’ own perceptions rather than objective behaviors from others. It’s also possible that people with more negative thinking styles were more likely to report feeling criticized and also more prone to depression. And while the sample is nationally representative for older adults in the UK, the findings may not apply equally to people in other countries or cultures. The observational nature of the study also means that causal conclusions should be made with caution.
Even with these limitations, the study highlights a significant issue that often goes unnoticed. Older adults may not always speak up about how they’re being treated by their loved ones, but feeling criticized—especially repeatedly—can have lasting effects on mental health. Social and emotional support is widely recognized as a protective factor against depression in older age, and this study adds to that by showing that the quality of close relationships matters as much as their presence.
The study, “Perceived criticism and depressive symptoms among adults aged 50 years and older: a 17-year population-based cohort study,” was authored by Yanzhi Li, Liwan Zhu, Yang Yang, Caiyun Zhang, Hao Zhao, Jingman Shi, Wenjian Lai, Wenjing Zhou, Guangduoji Shi, Wanxin Wang, Lan Guo, and Ciyong Lu.
